V 


PRIMITIVE   MAN. 


A  Family  of  the  Stone  Age  (Frontispiece).. 


fc 


PRIMITIVE  MAN 


BY 


LOUIS     FIGUIER. 


Nero  (EMtion, 


ILLUSTRATED     WITH      THIRTY     SCENES     OF    PRIMITIVE     LIFE,     AND 

TWO    HUNDRED    AND     THIRTY-THREE    FIGURES    OF    OBJECTS 

BELONGING     TO     r RE-HISTORIC    AGES. 


NEW     YORK: 
G.     P.     PUTNAM'S      SONS, 

182  FIFTH  AVKNUE. 
1876. 


"  Arma  antiqua  manus,  imgues,  dentesque  fueriint, 
Kt  lapides,  et  item  silvarum  fragmina  rami, 
Et  flamma  atque  ignes,  postquam  sunt  cognita  primum. 
Posterius  ferri  vis  est  aerisque  reperta  ; 
Kt  prior  aeris  erat  quam  ferri  cognitus  usus." 

Lucrefius,  De  Rertun  Natura,  lib.  I7,  v.  1281  —  5. 


.•  .'•  .«. •••  •  .      •*• 


PREFACE    TO   THE    ENGLISH    EDITION. 


THE  EDITOR  of  the  English  translation  of  "  L'Homme  Primitif  " 
has  not  deemed  it  necessary  to  reproduce  the  original  Preface, 
in  which  M.  Figuier  states  his  purpose  in  offering  a  new  work  on 
pre-historic  archaeology  to  the  French  public,  already  acquainted 
in  translation  with  the  works  on  the  subject  by  Sir  Charles 
Lyell  and  Sir  John  Lubbock.  Now  that  the  book  has  taken  its 
position  in  France,  it  is  only  needful  to  point  out  its  claims  to 
the  attention  of  English  readers. 

The  important  art  of  placing  scientific  knowledge,  and  espe- 
cially new  discoveries  and  topics  of  present  controversy,  within 
easy  reach  of  educated  readers  not  versed  in  their  strictly  tech- 
nical details,  is  one  which  has  for  years  been  carried  to  remarkable 
perfection  in  France,  in  no  small  measure  through  the  labours 
and  example  of  M.  Figuier  himself.  The  present  volume  takes 
up  the  subject  of  Pre-historic  Man,  beginning  with  the  remotely 
ancient  stages  of  human  life  belonging  to  the  Drift-Beds,  Bone- 
Caves,  and  Shell-Heaps,  passing  on  through  the  higher  levels  of 
the  Stone  Age,  through  the  succeeding  Bronze  Age,  and  into 
those  lower  ranges  of  the  Iron  Age  in  which  civilisation,  raised 
to  a  comparatively  high  development,  passes  from  the  hands 

A 

250837 


CONTENTS. 


KAGE 

INTRODUCTION I 


THE  STONE  AGE. 

E.  —  1Ehc  (Epoch  of  (Extinct  <Spccics  of  Jtntntiib  ;    or,  of  the  (Sreat 

vuxb    ttammoth. 


CHAPTER  I. 

The  carlie>l  Men  —  The  Type  of  Man  in  the  Epoch  of  Animals  of  extinct  Species 
-Origin  of  Man  —  Refutation  of  the  Theory  which  derives  the  Human 
Species  from  the  Ape  .  .  .  ........  25 


CHAPTER  II. 

Man  in  the  condition  of  Savage  Life  during  the  Quaternary  Epoch — The  Glacial 
Period,  and  its  Ravages  on  the  Primitive  Inhabitants  of  the  Globe — Man  in 
Conflict  with  the  Animals  of  the  Quaternary  Epoch — The  Discovery  of  Fire 
— The  Weapons  of  Primitive  Man — Varieties  of  Flint-hatchets — Manufacture 
of  the  earliest  Pottery — Ornamental  objects  at  the  Epoch  of  the  Great  Bear 
and  the  Mammoth 39 


CHAPTER  III. 

The  Man  of  the  Great  Bear  and  Mammoth  Epoch  lived  in  Caverns — Bone 
Caverns  in  the  Quaternary  Rock  during  the  Great  Bear  and  Mammoth  Epoch 
— Mode  of  Formation  of  these  Caverns — Their  Division  into  several  Classes — 
Implements  of  Flint,  Bone,  and  Reindeer-horn  found  in  these  Caverns — The 
Burial-place  at  Aurignac — Its  probable  Age — Customs  which  it  reveals — 
Funeral  Banquets  during  the  Great  Bear  and  Mammoth  Epoch  .  .  .  56 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

PAGE: 

Other  Caves   of  the  Epoch  of  the  Great  Bear   and  Mammoth — Type^of^jhe 
"  Human  Race  during  the  Epochs  of  the  Great  Bear  and  the  Reindeer — The 

culls  from  the  Caves  of  Engis  and  Neanderthal 72 


IE— (Epxtth  cf  the  Ifieinfcm;  or,  xjf  J-ttgratcb  Animals. 


CHAPTER  I. 

Mankind  during  the  Epoch  of  the  Reindeer — Their  Manners  and  Customs — 
Food — Garments — Weapons,  Utensils,  and  Implements — Pottery — Ornaments 
— Primitive  Arts — The  Principal  Caverns — Type  of  the  Human  Race  during 
the  Epoch  of  the  Reindeer^.  (Mjj) 85: 


HE— %ht  $0li«hcb-stxrne  (Syoth ;  or,  the  Qrp.cr.clt  xrf 


CHAPTER  I. 

The  European  Deluge — The  Dwelling-place  of  Man  during  the  Polished-stone 
Epoch — The  Caves  and  Rock-shelters  still  used  as  Dwelling-places — Prin- 
cipal Caves  belonging  to  the  Polished-stone  Epoch  which  have  been  explored 
up  to  the  present  Time — The  Food  of  Man  during  this  period  .  .  .125 


CHAPTER  II. 

The  Kjoekken-Moeddings  or  tl  Kitchen-middens"  of  Denmark — Mode  of  Life  of 
the  Men  living  in  Denmark  during  the  Polished-stone  Epoch — The  Domes- 
tication of  the  Dog — The  Art  of  Fishing  during  the  Polished-stone  Epoch — 
Fishing  Nets — Weapons  and  Instruments  of  War — Type  of  the  Human 
Race  ;  the  Borreby  Skull 129 


CHAPTER  III. 

Tombs  and  Mode  of  Interment  during  the  Polished-stone  Epoch — Tumuli  and 
other  Sepulchral  Monuments  formerly  called  Celtic — Labours  of  MM.  Alexander 
Bertrand  and  Bonstetten — Funeral  Customs 184 


CONTENTS.  xi 

THE    AGE    OF    METALS. 

I. — ^hc  l&wnzc  QZpoth. 
CHAPTER   I. 

PAGE 

The  Discovery  of  Metals — Various  Reasons  suggested  for  explaining  the  origin  of 
Bronze  in  the  West — The  Invention  of  Bronze — A  Foundry  during  the  Bronze 
Epoch — Permanent  and  Itinerant  Foundries  existing  during  the  Bronze  Epoch 
— Did  the  knowledge  of  Metals  take  its  rise  in  Europe  owing  to  the  Progress 
of  Civilisation,  or  was  it  a  Foreign  Importation  ? 205 

CHAPTER  II. 

The  Sources  of  Information  at  our  disposal  for  reconstructing  the  History  of  the 
Bronze  Epoch — The  Lacustrine  Settlements  of  Switzerland — Enumeration 
and  Classification  of  them — Their  Mode  of  Construction — Workmanship  and 
Position  of  the  Piles— Shape  and  Size  of  the  Huts — Population — Instruments 
of  Stone,  Bone,  and  Stag's  Horn — Pottery — Clothing — Food — Fauna — 
Domestic  Animals 215 

CHAPTER  III. 

Lacustrine  Habitations  of  Upper  Italy,  Bavaria,  Carinthia,  and  Carniola,  Pome- 
rania,  France,  and  England — The  Crannoges  of  Ireland  ....  227 

CHAPTER  IV. 

Palustrine  Habitations  or  Marsh- Villages — Surveys  made  by  MM.  Strobel  and 
Pigorini  of  the  Terramares  of  Tuscany — The  Terramares  of  Brazil  .  .  232 

CHAPTER  V. 

Weapons,  Instruments,  and  Utensils  contained  in  the  various  Lacustrine  Settle- 
ments in  Europe,  enabling  us  to  become  acquainted  with  the  Manners  and 
Customs  of  Man  during  the  Bronze  Epoch 240 

CHAPTER  VI. 

Industrial  Skill  and  Agriculture  during  the  Bronze  Epoch — The  Invention  of 
Glass — Invention  of  Weaving  ..•....».  258 


xii  CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

PAGE 

The  Art  of  War  during  the  Bronze  Epoch — Swords,  Spears,  and  Daggers — The 
Bronze  Epoch  in  Scandinavia,  in  the  British  Isles,  France,  Switzerland,  and 
Italy — Did  the  Man  of  the  Bronze  Epoch  entertain  any  religious  or  super- 
stitious Belief?  . 271 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

Mode  of  Interment  and  Burial-places  of  the  Bronze  Epoch — Characteristics  of  the 
Human  Race  during  the  same  Period    .  X^  .^\ 284 


IE— TO*  Iron  (Epoch. 


CHAPTER  I. 

Essential  Characteristics  of  the  Iron  Epoch — Preparation  of  Iron  in  Pre-historic 
Times— Discovery  of  Silver  and  Lead — Earthenware  made  on  the  Potter's 
Wheel — Invention  of  Coined  Money  ........  297 


CHAPTER  II. 

Weapons — Tools,  Instruments,  Utensils,  and  Pottery — The  Tombs  of  Hallstadt 
and  the  Plateau  of  La  Somma — The  Lake  Settlements  of  Switzerland — 
Human  Sacrifices — Type  of  Man  during  the  Iron  Epoch — Commencement  of 
the  Historic  Era  .  .  •5*3> •  •  •  •  *  •  312 


PRIMITIVE  MAN  IN  AMERICA 333 

CONCLUSION  343 


LIST  OF  PLATES. 


FIG.  _  I'AGE 

A  Family  of  the  Stone  Age Frontispiece 

1.  Human  Jaw-bone  found  at  Moulin-Quignon,  near  Abbeville,  in  1863    .         .      18 

2.  Skull  of  a  Man  belonging  to  the  Stone  Age  (The  Borreby  Skull}  .         .         .27 

3.  Skull  of  the  Gorilla 28 

4.  Skull  of  the  Orang-Outang ib. 

5.  Skull  of  the  Cynocephalus  Ape 29 

6.  Skull  of  the  Macacus  Baboon ib. 

7.  The  Production  of  Fire  (whole-page  engraving). 

8.  Dendrites  or  Crystallisations  found  on  the  Surface  of  wrought  Flints       .         .     46 

9.  Section  of  a  Gravel  Quarry  at  Saint- Acheul,  which  contained  the  wrought 

Flints  found  by  Boucher  de  Perthes 47 

10.  Hatchet  of  the  Almond-shaped  type  from  the  Valley  of  the  Somme         .         .  48 

11.  Flint  Hatchet  from  Saint- Acheul  of  the  so-called  Almond-shaped  type  .         .  49 

12.  Wrought  Flint  (Monstier  type) ib. 

13.  Flint  Scraper 50 

14.  Flint  Knife,  found  at  Menchecourt,  near  Abbeville ib. 

15.  Flint  Core  or  Nucleus 51 

1 6.  Man  in  the  Great  Bear  and  Mammoth  Epoch  (whole-page  engraving). 

17.  The  First  Potter  (whole-page  engraving). 

1 8.  Fossil  Shells  used  as  Ornaments,  and  found  in  the  Gravel  at  Amiens     .         .  54 

19.  Theoretical  Section  of  a  Vein  of  Clay  in  the  Carboniferous  Limestone,  before 

the  hollowing  out  of  Valleys  by  Diluvial  Waters 56 

20.  Theoretical  Section  of  the  same  Vein  of  Clay  converted  into  a  Cavern,  after 

the  hollowing  out  of  Valleys  by  Diluvial  Waters        .         .         .  57 

21.  The  Cave  of  Galeinreuth,  in  Bavaria 59 

22.  Section  of  the  Sepulchral  Cave  of  Aurignac .62 

23.  Flint  Knife,  found  in  the  Sepulchral  Cave  of  Aurignac.         .         .         .         -63 

24.  Implement  made  of  Reindeer's  or  Stag's  Horn,  found  in  the  Sepulchral  Cave 

of  Aurignac     .         . .     ib. 

25.  Series  of  Perforated  Discs  of  the  Cardium  Shell,  found  in  the  Sepulchral 

Cave  of  Aurignac .         .         .64 


xiv  LIST  OF  PLA  TES. 

FIG.  1'AGE 

26.  Fragment  of  the  Lower  Jaw  of  a  Cave-Bear  found  in  the  Sepulchral  Cave  of 

Aurignac 64 

27.  Upper  Molar  of  a  Bison  found  in  the  Ashes  of  the  Fire-Hearth  of  the  Sepul- 

chral Cave  of  Aurignac 65 

28.  Arrow-head  made  of  Reindeer's  Horn,   found  in  the  Sepulchral  Cave  of 

Aurignac ' 66 

29.  Bodkin  made  of  Roebuck's  Horn,  found  in  the  Sepulchral  Cave  of  Aurignac     ib. 

30.  Truncated  Blade  in  Reindeer's  Horn,  bearing  two  Series  of  transversal  Lines 

and  Notches,  probably  used  for  numeration 67 

31.  Funeral  Feast  during  the  Great  Bear    and  Mammoth  Epoch  (whole-page 

engraving). 

32.  Carved  and  Perforated  Canine  Tooth  of  a  Young  Cave-Bear          .         .         .69 

33.  Head  of  a  Cave-Bear  found  in  the  Cave  of  Aurignac     ....         .70 

34.  Head  of  the  Rhinoceros  tichorhinus,  found  in  the  Cave  of  Aurignac        .         .     ib. 

35.  Head  of  a  great  Stag  (Megaceros  hibernicus),  found  in  the  Cave  of  Aurignac  .     71 

36.  Sketch  of  the  Great  Bear  on  a  Stone,  found  in  the  Cave  of  Massat         .         .     75 

37.  Portion  of  the  Skull  of  an  Individual  belonging  to  the  Epoch  of  the  Great 

Bear  and  the  Mammoth,  found  in  the  Cave  of  Engis          .         .         .         .80 

38.  Portion  of  the  so-called  Neanderthal  Skull ib. 

39.  Man  of  the  Reindeer  Epoch  (whole-page  engraving). 

40.  Rock- Shelter  at   Bruniquel,    a   supposed   Habitation    of    Man    during   the 

Reindeer  Epoch  (whole-page  engraving). 

41.  A  Feast  during  the  Reindeer  Epoch  (whole-page  engraving). 

42.  Flint  Bodkin  or  Stiletto  for  Sewing  Reindeer  Skins,  found  in  the  Cave  of 

Les  Eyzies  (Perigord) 92 

43.  Bone-Needle  for  Sewing ib. 

44.  The  Canine  Tooth  of  a  Wolf,  bored  so  as  to  be  used  as  an  Ornament    .         .  93. 

45.  Ornament  made  of  the  bony  part  of  a  Horse's  Ear        .         .         .         .  ib. 

46.  Spear-head,  found  in  the  Cave  of  Laugerie-Basse  (Perigord).         .         .         -95 

47.  Worked  Flint  from  Perigord  (Knife) 96 

48.  Worked  Flint  from  Perigord  (Hatchet)         .......  ib. 

49.  Chipped  Flint  from  Perigord  (Knife)    ........  97 

50.  Chipped  Flint  from  Perigord  (Scraper)          .......  ib. 

51.  Small  Flint  Saw,  found  in  the  Rock-Shelter  at  Bruniquel     .         .         .         .98 

52.  The  Chase  during  the  Reindeer  Epoch  (whole-page  engraving). 

53.  Barbed  Arrow  of  Reindeer  Horn          ........  99 

54.  Arrow  of  Reindeer  Horn  with  Double  Barbs ib. 

55.  Animal  Bone,  pierced  by  an  Arrow  of  Reindeer  Horn 100 

56.  Tool    made    of    Reindeer    Horn,    found   in    the   Cave   of    Laugerie-Basse 

(Stiletto?) ib. 

57.  Tool  made  of  Reindeer  Horn,  found  in  the  Cave  of  Laugerie-Basse  (Needle?)  ib. 

58.  Spoon  of  Reindeer  Horn 101 

59.  Knuckle-bone  of  a  Reindeer's  Foot,  bored  with  a  hole  and  used  as  a  Whistle  102 

60.  Staff  of  Authority  in  Reindeer's  Horn,  found  in  the  Cave  of  Perigord    .         .  ib. 

61.  Another  Staff  of  Authority  in  Reindeer's  Horn     .         .         .         .         .         .  ib. 

62.  A  Geode,  used  as  a  Cooking  Vessel  (?),  found  in  the  Cave  of  La  Madelaine 

(Perigord) joj 

63.  Earthen  Vase,  found  in  the  Cave  of  Furfooz  (Belgium) 104 

64.  Sketch  of  a  Mammoth  graven  on  a  Slab  of  Ivory 106 

65.  I  lilt  of  a  Dagger  carved  in  the  Shape  of  a  Reindeer 107 


LIST  OF  PLATES.  xv 

FIG.  PAGE 

66.  Representation  of  a  Stag  drawn  on  a  Stag's  Horn 168 

67.  Representation  of  some  large  Herbivorous  Animal  on  a  Fragment  of  Rein- 

deer's Horn ib. 

68.  Arts  of  Drawing   and  Sculpture  during  the  Reindeer  Epoch  (whole-page 

engraving). 

69.  Representation  of  an  Animal  sketched  on  a  Fragment  of  Reindeer's  Horn   .   109 

70.  Fragment  of  a  Slab  of  Schist,  bearing  the  Representation  of  some  Animal, 

and  found  in  the  Cave  of  Les  Eyzies .    ib. 

71.  A  kind  of  Harpoon  of  Reindeer's  Horn  carved  in  the  Shape  of  an  Animal's 

Head 110 

72.  Staff  of  Authority,  on  which  are  graven  Representations  of  a  Man,  two 

Horses,  and  a  Fish .in 

73.  Skull,  found  at  Furfooz  by  M.  Edouard  Dupont 114 

74.  Skull  of  an  Old  Man,  found  in  a  Rock- Shelter  at  Bruniquel.         .         .         -US 

75.  A  Funeral  Ceremony  during  the  Reindeer  Epoch  (whole-page  engraving). 

76.  Man  of  the  Polished-stone  Epoch  (whole-page  engraving). 

77.  Bone  Skewers  used  as  Fish-hooks 134 

78.  Fishing-net  with  wide  Meshes .         .         .136 

79.  Stone  weight  used  for  sinking  the  Fishing-nets    .         .         .         .         .         .  ib. 

80.  Fishing  during  the  Polished-stone  Epoch  (whole-page  engraving). 

81.  Flint  Knife  from  one  of  the  Danish  Beds 138 

82.  Nucleus  off  which  Knives  are  flaked ib. 

83.  Flint  Hatchet  from  one  of  the  Danish  Beds ib. 

84.  Flint  Scraper  from  one  of  the  Danish  Beds          .         .         .         .         .         .  ib. 

85.  Refuse  from  the  Manufacture  of  wrought  Flints 139 

86.  Weight  to  sink  Fishing-nets ib. 

87.  Danish  Axe  of  the  Polished-stone  Epoch 140 

88.  Double-edged  Axe ib. 

89.  Danish  Axe-hammer  drilled  for  handle 141 

90.  Ditto ib. 

91.  Spear-head  from  Denmark 142 

92.  Ditto ib. 

93.  Toothed  Spear-head  of  Flint      .         .         .         ...         .         .         .         .  143 

94.  Flint  Poniard  from  Denmark .  ib. 

95.  Type  of  the  Danish  Arrow-head          ........  ib. 

96.  Another  Type  of  Arrow-head ib. 

97.  Arrow-head 144 

98.  Arrow-head  from  Denmark ib. 

99.  Flint  Chisel  from  Denmark .  ib. 

100.  Small  Stone  Saw  from  the  Danish  Deposits 145 

101.  Another  Stone  Saw  from  Denmark ib. 

102.  Bone  Harpoon  of  the  Stone  Age  from  Denmark ib. 

103.  Bone  Comb  from  Denmark         .          .         .         .         ,         .         .         .         .    146 

104.  Necklace  and  Various  Ornaments  of  Amber ib. 

105.  Nucleus  in  the  Museum  of  Saint-Germain,  from  the  Workshop  of  Grand- 

Pressigny 148 

106.  Polisher  from  Grand  Pressigny,  both  faces  being  shown       .         .         .         .150 

107.  The  earliest  Manufacture  and  Polishing  of  Flints  (whole-page  engraving). 

1 08.  Polisher  found  by  M.  Leguay 154 

109.  Spear-head  from  Spiennes 158 


xvi  LIST  OF  PLA  TES. 

FIG.  PAGE 

no.   Polished  Jade  Hatchet  in  the  Museum  of  Saint-Germain      .         .         .         .159 
in.   Polished  Flint  Hatchet  with  a  Sheath  of  Stag's  Horn  fitted  for  a  Handle     .    161 

112.  Flint  Hatchet  ficted  into  a  Stag's-horn  Sheath  having  an  Oak  Handle,  from 

Boucher  de  Perthes'  Illustration 162 

113.  Hatchet  Handle  made  of  Oak 163 

1 14.  Stag's-horn  Sheath  open  at  each  end,  so  as  to  receive  two  Hatchets     .         .    ib. 

115.  Polished  Flint  Hatchet,  from  Belgium,  fitted  into  a  Stag's-horn  Sheath        .    ib, 

116.  Gardening  Tool  made  of  Stag's  Horn  (after  Boucher  de  Perthes).         .         .    164 

117.  Ditto ib. 

118.  Ditto 165 

119.  Flint  Tool  in  a  Bone  Handle 166 

120.  Flint  Tool  with  Bone  Handle ib. 

121.  Ornamented  Bone  Handle ....#. 

122.  Necklace  made  of  Boars'  Tusks  longitudinally  divided         .         .         .         .167 

123.  Flint  Knife  from  the  Peat  Bogs  near  Antwerp     .         .         .         .         .         .168 

124.  Primitive  Corn  Mill  .         . 170 

125.  The  Art  of  Bread  Making  in  the  Stone  Age  (whole-page  engraving). 

126.  The  Earliest  Navigators  (whole-page  engraving). 

127.  The  Earliest  Regular  Conflicts  between  Men  of  the  Stone  Age  ;  or,  The 

Entrenched  Camp  of  Furfooz  (whole-page  engraving). 

128.  Flint  Arrow-head  from  Civita-Nova  (Italy) 180 

129.  The  Borreby  Skull 182 

130.  Danish  Dolmen. 185 

131.  Dolmen  at  Assies  (Department  of  Lot)        .  ib. 

132.  Dolmen  at  Connere  (Marne) 186 

J33'  Vertical    Section   of  the  Dolmen   of  Lockmariaker,   in  Brittany.     In  the 

Museum  of  Saint-Germain ib. 

134.  Tumulus-Dolmen  at  Gavr'inis  (Morbihan)  .         .         .         .         .         .         .187 

135.  A  portion  of  the  Dolmen  of  Gavr'inis .         .         .         .         .         .  .    ib. 

136.  General  Form  of  a  covered  Passage-Tomb 188 

137.  Passage-Tomb  at  Bagneux,  near  Saumur ib. 

138.  Passage  Tomb  at  Plauharmel  (Morbihan) 189 

139.  Passage-Tomb,  the  so-called  Table  de  Cesar,  at  Lockmariaker  (Morbihan)   .    ib. 

140.  A  Danish  Tumulus  or  chambered  Sepulchre       .         .         .         .         .         .190 

141.  Usual  Shape  of  a  Menhir 191 

142.  The  Rows  of  Menhirs  at  Carnac ib. 

143.  Dolmen   with   a   Circuit   of  Stones   (Cromlech)   in   the   Province  of  Con- 

stantine 192 

144.  Group  of  Danish  Cromlechs         .........  ib. 

145.  Position  of  Skeletons  in  a  Swedish  Tomb  of  the  Stone  Age          .         .         .  194 

146.  A  Tumulus  of  the  Polished-stone  Epoch  (whole -page  engraving). 

147.  A  Founder's  Workshop  during  the  Bronze  Epoch  (whole-page  engraving). 

148.  Section  of  the  Tenevtire  of  Hauterive 220 

149.  A  Swiss  Lake  Village  of  the  Bronze  Epoch  (whole-page  engraving). 

150.  Vertical  Section  of  a  Crannoge  in  the  Ardakillin  Lake         ....  230 

151.  Vertical  Section  of  the  Marniera  of  Castione 233 

152.  Floor  of  the  Marniera  of  Castione 234 

153.  Plan  of  the  Piles  and  Cross-beams  in  the  Marniera  of  Castione   .         .         .  ib. 

154.  The  Chase  during  the  Bronze  Epoch  (whole-page  engraving). 

155.  Stone  Hatchet  from  the  Lacustrine  Habitations  of  Switzerland    .         .         .  241 


LIST  OF  PLATES.  xvii 

FIG.  VAGE 

156.  Stone  Chisel  with  Stag's-horn  Handle,  from  the  Lacustrine  Habitations  of 

Switzerland 241 

157.  Flint  Hammer  fitted  with  a  Stag's-horn  Handle 242 

158.  Stone  Hatchet  with  Double  Handle  of  Wood  and  Stag's  Horn  .         .         .    ib. 

159.  1 60.   Serpentine    Hatchet-Hammers   from   the    Lacustrine    Habitations   of 

Switzerland 243 

161.  Another  Hatchet-Hammer  from  the  Lacustrine  Habitations  of  Switzerland    ib. 

162.  Flint  Saw  fitted  into  a  Piece  of  Stag's  Horn 244 

163.  Flint  Spear-head  from  the  Lacustrine  Settlements  of  Switzerland         .         .    ib. 

164.  Various  Shapes  of  Flint  Arrow-heads  from  the  Lacustrine  Settlements  of 

Switzerland .  ib. 

165.  Arrow-head  of  Bone  fixed  on  the  Shaft  by  means  of  Bitumen     .         .         .  245 

1 66.  Stone  Arrow-head  fixed  on  the  Shaft  by  means  of  Bitumen         .         .         .  ib. 

167.  Arrow-head  fixed  on  the  Shaft  by  a  Ligature  of  String        ....  ib. 

1 68.  Bone  Bodkin,  from  the  Lacustrine  Habitations  of  Switzerland     .         .         .  246 

169.  Ditto ib. 

1 70.  Carpenter's  Chisel,  from  the  Lacustrine  Habitations  of  Switzerland     .         .  ib. 

171.  Bone  Needle ib. 

172.  Pick-axe  of  Stag's  Horn 247 

173.  Harpoon  made  of  Stag's  Horn,  from  the  Lacustrine  Habitations  of  Switzer- 

land       ib. 

174.  Ditto ib. 

175.  Vessel  made  of  Stag's  Horn ib. 

1 76.  Bronze  Winged  Hatchet,  from  the  Lacustrine  Habitations  of  Switzerland    .   249 

177.  Winged  Hatchet  (front  and  side  view),  from  the  Lacustrine  Habitations  of 

Switzerland  ............    ib. 

178.  Socketed  Hatchets,  from  the  Lacustrine  Habitations ib. 

179.  Knife  Hatchet  (front  and  side  view),  from  the  Lacustrine  Habitations.         .    ib. 

1 80.  Carpenter's  Chisel,  in  Bronze 250 

181.  Hexagonal  Hammer . ib. 

182.  Knife  with  a  Tang  to  fit  into  a  Handle,  from  the  Lacustrine  Settlements  of 

Switzerland ib. 

183.  Socketed  Knife,  from  the  Lacustrine  Settlements  of  Switzerland .         .         .251 

184.  Bronze  Sickle,  found  by  M.  Desor  at  Chevroux ib. 

185.  Bronze  Fish-hook,  from  the  Lacustrine  Settlements  of  Switzerland       .         .  252 

186.  Double  Fish-hook,  from  the  Lacustrine  Settlements  of  Switzerland      .         .  ib. 

187.  Hair-pin,  found  by  M.  Desor  in  one  of  the  Swiss  Lakes      ....  253 

188.  Ditto .         .  ib. 

189.  Hair-pin  with  Cylindrical  Head ib. 

190.  Hair-pin  with  Curled  Head ib. 

191.  Bronze  Bracelet,  found  in  one  of  the  Swiss  Lakes 254 

192.  Another  Bronze  Bracelet 255 

193.  Bronze  Ring ib. 

194.  Bronze  Pendant,  from  the  Lacustrine  Habitations  of  Switzerland          .         .  256 

195.  Another  Bronze  Pendant,  from  the  Lacustrine  Habitations  of  Switzerland    .  ib. 

196.  Bronze  Ring,  from  the  Lacustrine  Habitations  of  Switzerland      .         .         .  ib. 

197.  Another  Ornamental  Ring          .........  ib. 

198.  Earthenware  Vessel  with  Conical  Bottom,  from  the  Lacustrine  Habitations 

of  Switzerland 259 

199.  Earthen  Vessel  placed  on  its  Support ib. 


xviii  LIST  OF  PLATES. 

FIG.  1'AGE 

200.  Fragment  of  an  Earthen  Vessel  with  a  Handle    .         .         .         .         .         .  259 

201.  Vessel  of  Baked  Clay,  from  the  Lacustrine  Settlements  of  Switzerland          .  260 

202.  Ditto ib. 

203.  Cloth  of  the  Bronze  Age,   found  in  the  Lacustrine  Settlements  of  Switzer- 

land       262 

204.  The  first  Weaver  (whole-page  engraving). 

205.  Spindle-whorls,  made  of  Baked  Clay,  found  in  the  Lacustrine  Settlements 

of  Switzerland 263 

206.  Principal  Designs  for   the  Ornamentation   of  Pottery  during  the  Bronze 

Epoch 264 

207.  The  Cultivation  of  Gardens   during    the   Bronze  Epoch  (whole-page  en- 

graving). 

208.  A  Feast  during  the  Bronze  Epoch  (whole-page  engraving). 

209.  Bronze  Sword  in  the  Museum  of  Neuchatel 272 

210.  Bronze  Dagger,  found  in  one  of  the  Swiss  Lakes          .         .         .         .         .  ib. 

211.  Bronze  Spear-head,  found  in  one  of  the  Swiss  Lakes 273 

212.  Bronze  Arrow-head,  found  in  a  Lacustrine  Settlement  of  Switzerland  .         .  ib. 

213.  Scandinavian  Sword.         ..........  274 

214.  Hilt  of  a  Scandinavian  Sword ib. 

215.  Mode  of  fixing  the  Handle  to  a  Scandinavian  Hatchet         ....  ib. 

216.  Another  Mode  of  fixing  the  Handle  to  a  Scandinavian  Hatchet  .         .         .  ib. 

217.  Danish  Bronze  Knife  of  the  Bronze  Epoch 275 

218.  Ditto ib. 

219.  Blade  of  a  Danish  Razor  of  the  Bronze  Epoch 276 

220.  Woollen  Cloak  of  the  Bronze  Epoch,  found  in  1861  in  a  Tomb  in  Den- 

mark   277 

221.  Woollen  Shawl,  found  in  the  same  Tomb ib. 

222.  Woollen  Shirt,  taken  from  the  same  Tomb 278 

223.  First  Woollen  Cap,  found  in  the  same  Tomb      .         .         .         .         .         .    ib. 

224.  Second  Woollen  Cap,  found  in  the  same  Tomb ib. 

225.  Bronze  Comb,  found  in  the  same  Tomb      .         .         .         .         .         .         .    ib. 

226.  Warriors  during  the  Bronze  Epoch  (whole-page  engraving). 

227.  Bronze  Hatchet  Mould,  found  in  Ireland 279 

228.  Stone  Crescent,  found  in  one  of  the  Swiss  Lakes 280 

229.  Skull  found  at  Meilen,  Front  View 289 

230.  Skull  found  at  Meilen,  Profile  View  ........    ib. 

231.  Primitive  Furnace  for  Smelting  Iron  (whole-page  engraving). 

232.  Bronze  Coin,  from  the  Lake  of  Neuchatel .310 

233.  Sword,  from  the  Tombs  of  Hallstadt  (with  a  Bronze  Hilt  and  Iron  Blade).  313 

234.  Ditto ib. 

235.  Dagger,  from  the  Tombs  of  Hallstadt  (Bronze  Handle  and  Iron  Blade)        .  314 

236.  Ditto ib. 

237.  Funeral  Ceremonies  during  the  Iron  Epoch  (whole-page  engraving). 

238.  A    Skeleton,    portions   of  which  have   been  burnt,   from  the   Tombs   of 

Hallstadt 315 

239.  A  Necklace  with  Pendants,  from  the  Tombs  of  Hallstadt    .         .         ,         .  316 

240.  Bracelet,  from  the  Tombs  of  Hallstadt 317 

241.  Ditto ib. 

242.  Bronze  Vase,  from  the  Tombs  of  Hallstadt ib. 

243.  Ditto ib. 


LIST  OF  PLATES.  xix 


FIG.  PAGE 

244.  Warriors  of  the  Iron  Epoch  (whole-page  engraving). 

245,  246.  Fore-arm  encircled  with  Bracelets,  found  in  the  Tombs  of  Belleville 

(Savoy) 319 

247.  Iron  Sword,  found  in  one  of  the  Swiss  Lakes 321 

248.  Sword  with  Damascened  Blade,  found  in  one  of  the  Swiss  Lakes         .         .    ib. 

249.  Sheath  of  a  Sword,  found  in  one  of  the  Swiss  Lakes  .....  322 

250.  Lance-head,  found  in  one  of  the  Swiss  Lakes      ......   323 

251.  Head  of    a  Javelin,    found   in    the    Lacustrine    Settlement   of    La   Tene 

(Neuchatel) 324 

252.  The  Chase  during  the  Iron  Epoch  (whole-page  engraving). 

253.  Square-socketed  Iron  Hatchet,  found  in  one  of  the  Lakes  of  Switzerland     .  325 

254.  Sickle .         .  ib. 

255.  Scythe,  from  the  Lacustrine  Settlements  of  Switzerland       ....  326 

256.  Iron   Point  of  Boat-hook,    used  by  the   Swiss  Boatmen  during   the  Iron 

Epoch ib, 

257.  Horse's  Bit,  found  in  the  Lake  of  Neuchatel ib. 

258.  Fibula,  or  Iron  Brooch,  found  in  the  Lake  of  Neuchatel      ....  327 

259.  Iron  Buckle  for  a  Sword-belt,  found  in  the  Lake  of  Neuchatel     .         .         .   328 

260.  Iron  Pincers,  found  in  the  Lake  of  Neuchatel     . ib. 

261.  Iron  Spring-scissors,  found  in  the  Lake  of  Neuchatel ib. 

262.  Razor 329 

263.  Agriculture  during  the  Iron  Epoch  (whole-page  engraving). 


PRIMITIVE    MAN. 


INTRODUCTION. 

FORTY  years  have  scarcely  elapsed  since  scientific  men  first  began 
to  attribute  to  the  human  race  an  antiquity  more  remote  than  that 
which  is  assigned  to  them  by  history  and  tradition.  Down  to  a 
comparatively  recent  time  the  appearance  of  primitive  man  was 
not  dated  back  beyond  a  period  of  6000  to  7000  years.  This  his- 
torical chronology  was  a  little  unsettled  by  the  researches  made 
among  various  eastern  nations — the  Chinese,  the  Egyptians,  and 
the  Indians.  The  savants  who  studied  these  ancient  systems  of 
civilisation  found  themselves  unable  to  limit  them  to  the  6000 
years  of  the  standard  chronology,  and  extended  back  for  some 
thousands  of  years  the  antiquity  of  the  eastern  races. 

This  idea,  however,  never  made  its  way  beyond  the  narrow 
circle  of  oriental  scholars,  and  did  nothing  towards  any  alteration 
in  the  general  opinion,  which  allowed  only  6000  years  since  the 
creation  of  the  human  species. 

This  opinion  was  confirmed,  and,  to  some  extent,  rendered 
sacred  by  an  erroneous  interpretation  of  Holy  Writ.  It  was  thought 
that  the  Old  Testament  stated  that  man  was  created  6000  years 
ago.  Now  the  fact  is,  nothing  of  the  kind  can  be  found  in  the  Book 
of  Genesis.  It  is  only  the  commentators  and  the  compilers  of  chro- 
nological systems  who  have  put  forward  this  date  as  that  of  the  first 
appearance  of  the  human  race.  M.  Edouard  Lartet,  who  was  called 
in  1869  to  the  chair  of  palaeontology  in  the  Museum  of  Natural 


2  INTRODUCTION. 

History  of  Paris,  reminds  us,  in  the  following  passage  taken  from 
one  of  his  elegant  dissertations,  that  it  is  the  chronologists  alone 
who  have  propounded  this  idea,  and  that  they  have,  in  this  re- 
spect, very  wrongly  interpreted  the  statements  of  the  Bible  : 

"  In  Genesis" says  M.  Lartet,  " no  date  can  be  found  which  sets 
a  limit  to  the  time  at  which  primitive  mankind  may  have  made  its 
first  appearance.  Chronologists,  however,  for  fifteen  centuries  have 
been  endeavouring  to  make  Biblical  facts  fall  in  with  the  precon- 
certed arrangements  of  their  systems.  Thus  we  find  that  more  than 
140  opinions  have  been  brought  forward  as  to  the  date  of  the  crea- 
tion alone,  and  that  between  the  varying  extremes  there  is  a  dif- 
ference of  3 194  years — a  difference  which  only  applies  to  the  period 
between  the  commencement  of  the  world  and  the  birth  of  Jesus 
Christ.  This  disagreement  turns  chiefly  on  those  portions  of  the 
interval  which  are  in  closest  proximity  to  the  creation. 

"  From  the  moment  when  it  becomes  a  recognised  fact  that  the 
origin  of  mankind  is  a  question  independent  of  all  subordination  to 
dogma,  this  question  will  assume  its  proper  position  as  a  scientific 
thesis,  and  will  be  accessible  to  any  kind  of  discussion,  and  capable, 
in  every  point  of  view,  of  receiving  the  solution  which  best  har- 
monises with  the  known  facts  and  experimental  demonstrations."* 

Thus  we  must  not  assume  that  the  authority  of  Holy  Writ  is 
in  any  way  questioned  by  those  labours  which  aim  at  seeking  the 
real  epoch  of  man's  first  appearance  on  the  earth. 

In  corroboration  of  M.  Lartet's  statement,  we  must  call  to  mind 
that  the  Catholic  church,  which  has  raised  to  the  rank  of  dogma 
so  many  unimportant  facts,  has  never  desired  to  treat  in  this  way 
the  idea  that  man  was  created  only  6000  years  ago. 

There  is,  therefore,  no  need  for  surprise  when  we  learn  that  cer- 
tain members  of  the  Catholic  clergy  have  devoted  themselves  with 
energy  to  the  study  of  pre-historic  man.  Mgr.  Meignan,  Bishop  of 
Chalons-sur-Marne,  is  one  of  the  best-informed  men  in  France  as 
respects  this  new  science  ;  he  cultivates  it  with  the  utmost  zeal,  and 
his  personal  researches  have  added  much  to  the  sum  of  our  know- 
ledge of  this  question.  Under  the  title  of  "  Le  Monde  et  1'Homme 

*  "  Nouvelles  Recherches  sur  la  Coexistence  de  1'Homme  et  des  grands  Mammi- 
feres  Fossiles  reputes  caracteristiques  de  la  derniere  periode  geologique,"  by  Ed. 
Lartet,  "  Annales  des  Sciences  Naturelles,"  4th  ser.  vol.  XY.  p.  256. 


INTRODUCTION.  3 

Primitif  selon  la  Bible/'*  the  learned  Bishop  of  Chalons-sur- 
Marne  published,  in  1869,  a  voluminous  work,  in  which,  taking 
up  the  subjects  discussed  by  Marcel  de  Serres  in  his  "  Cosmogonie 
de  Moi'se,  comparee  aux  Faits  Geologiques,"  •(•  and  enlarging 
upon  the  facts  which  science  has  recently  acquired  as  to  the  sub- 
ject of  primitive  man,  he  seeks  to  establish  the  coincidence  of  all 
these  data  with  the  records  of  Revelation. 

M.  1'Abbe  Lambert  has  recently  published  a  work  on 
"L'Homme  Primitif  et  la  Bible,"J  in  which  he  proves  that  the 
discoveries  of  modern  science  concerning  the  antiquity  of  man 
are  in  no  way  opposed  to  the  records  of  Revelation  in  the  Book 
of  Moses. 

Lastly,  it  is  a  member  of  the  clerical  body,  M.  1'Abbe  Bourgeois, 
who,  more  a  royalist  than  the  king — that  is,  more  advanced  in  his 
views  than  most  contemporary  geologists — is  in  favour  of  tracing 
back  to  the  tertiary  epoch  the  earliest  date  of  the  existence  of 
man.  We  shall  have  to  impugn  this  somewhat  exaggerated 
opinion,  which,  indeed,  we  only  quote  here  for  the  sake  of  proving 
that  the  theological  scruples  which  so  long  arrested  the  progress 
of  inquiry  with  regard  to  primitive  man,  have  now  disappeared,  in 
consequence  of  the  perfect  independence  of  this  question  in 
relation  to  Catholic  dogma  being  evidently  shown. 

Thanks  to  the  mutual  support  which  has  been  afforded  by  the 
three  sister-sciences — geology,  palaeontology,  and  archaeology; 
thanks  to  the  happy  combinations  which  these  sciences  have  pre- 
sented to  the  efforts  of  men  animated  with  an  ardent  zeal  for  the 
investigation  of  the  truth ;  and  thanks,  lastly,  to  the  unbounded 
interest  which  attaches  to  this  subject,  the  result  has  been  that 
the  limits  which  had  been  so  long  attributed  to  the  existence  of 
the  human  species  have  been  extraordinarily  extended,  and  the 
date  of  the  first  appearance  of  man  has  been  carried  back  to  the 
night  of  the  darkest  ages.  The  mind,  it  may  well  be  said,  recoils 
dismayed  when  it  undertakes  the  computation  of  the  thousands 
of  years  which  have  elapsed  since  the  creation  of  man. 

*  i  vol.  Svo,  Paris,  1869 ;  V.  Palme. 

f  2  vols.  121110,  3rd  edit,  Paris,  1859  ;  Lagny  freres. 

J  Pamphlet,  Svo,  Paris,  1869 ;  Savy. 


4  INTRODUCTION. 

But,  it  will  naturally  be  asked,  on  what  grounds  do  you  base 
this  assertion  ?  What  evidence  do  you  bring  forward,  and  what 
are  the  elements  of  your  proof  ? 

In  the  following  paragraphs  we  give  some  of  the  principal 
means  of  examination  and  study  which  have  directed  the  efforts 
of  savants  in  this  class  of  investigation,  and  have  enabled  them  to 
create  a  science  of  the  antiquity  of  the  human  species. 

If  man  existed  at  any  very  remote  epoch,  he  must  have  left 
traces  of  his  presence  in  the  spots  which  he  inhabited  and  on  the 
soil  which  he  trod  under  his  feet.  However  savage  his  state  may 
be  assumed  to  have  been,  primitive  man  must  have  possessed 
some  implements  of  fishing  and  hunting — some  weapons  where- 
with to  strike  down  any  prey  which  was  stronger  or  more  agile 
than  himself.  All  human  beings  have  been  in  possession  of  some 
scrap  of  clothing ;  and  they  have  had  at  their  command  certain 
implements  more  or  less  rough  in  their  character,  be  they  only  a 
shell  in  which  to  draw  water  or  a  tool  for  cleaving  wood  and  con- 
structing some  place  of  shelter,  a  knife  to  cut  their  food,  and  a 
lump  of  stone  to  break  the  bones  of  the  animals  which  served  for 
their  nutriment.  Never  has  man  existed  who  was  not  in 
possession  of  some  kind  of  defensive  weapon.  These  implements 
and  these  weapons  have  been  patiently  sought  for,  and  they  have 
also  been  found.  They  have  been  found  in  certain  strata  of  the 
earth,  the  age  of  which  is  known  by  geologists ;  some  of  these 
strata  precede  and  others  are  subsequent  to  the  cataclysm  of  the 
European  deluge  of  the  quaternary  epoch. 

The  fact  has  thus  been  proved  that  a  race  of  men  lived  upon 
the  earth  at  the  epoch  settled  by  the  geological  age  of  these  strata 
— that  is,  during  the  quaternary  epoch. 

When  this  class  of  evidence  of  man's  presence — that  is,  the 
vestiges  of  his  primitive  industry — fails  us,  a  state  of  things,  how- 
ever, which  comparatively  seldom  occurs,  his  existence  is  sometimes 
revealed  by  the  presence  of  human  bones  buried  in  the  earth  and 
preserved  through  long  ages  by  means  of  the  deposits  of  cal- 
careous salts  which  have  petrified  or  rather  fossilised  them. 
Sometimes,  in  fact,  the  remains  of  human  bones  have  been 
found  in  quaternary  rocks,  which  are,  consequently,  considerably 
anterior  to  those  of  the  present  geological  epoch. 


INTRODUCTION.  5 

This  means  of  proof  is,  however,  more  difficult  to  bring  forward 
than  the  preceding  class  of  evidence  ;  because  human  bones  are 
very  liable  to  decay  when  they  are  buried  at  shallow  depths,  and 
require  for  any  length  of  preservation  a  concurrence  of  cir- 
cumstances which  is  but  rarely  met  with  ;  because  also  the  tribes 
of  primitive  men  often  burnt  their  dead  bodies ;  and,  lastly, 
because  the  human  race  then  formed  but  a  very  scanty  popu- 
lation. 

Another  excellent  proof,  which  demonstrates  the  existence  of 
man  at  a  geological  epoch  anterior  to  the  present  era,  is  to  be 
deduced  from  the  intermixture  of  human  bones  with  those  of 
antediluvian  animals.  It  is  evident  that  if  we  meet  with  the 
bones  of  the  mammoth,  the  cave-bear,  the  cave-tiger,  &c. — 
animals  which  lived  only  in  the  quaternary  epoch  and  are  now 
extinct — in  conjunction  with  the  bones  of  man  or  the  relics  of 
his  industry,  such  as  weapons,  implements,  utensils,  &c.,  we  can 
assert  with  some  degree  of  certainty  that  our  species  was  con- 
temporaneous with  the  above-named  animals.  Now  this  inter- 
mixture has  often  been  met  with  under  the  ground  in  caves  or 
deeply  buried  in  the  earth. 

These  form  the  various  kinds  of  proof  which  have  been  made 
use  of  to  establish  the  fact  of  man's  presence  upon  the  earth 
during  the  quaternary  epoch.  We  will  now  give  a  brief  recital  of 
the  principal  investigations  which  have  contributed  to  the  know- 
ledge on  which  is  based  the  newly-formed  science  which  treats 
of  the  practical  starting-point  of  mankind. 

Palaeontology,  as  a  science,  does  not  count  more  than  half  a 
century  of  existence.  We  scarcely  seem,  indeed,  to  have  raised 
more  than  one  corner  of  the  veil  which  covers  the  relics  of  an 
extinct  world  ;  as  yet,  for  instance,  we  know  absolutely  nothing 
of  all  that  sleeps  buried  in  the  depths  of  the  earth  lying  under 
the  basin  of  the  sea.  It  need  not,  therefore,  afford  any  great 
ground  for  surprise  that  so  long  a  time  elapsed  before  human 
bones  or  the  vestiges  of  the  primitive  industry  of  man  were 
discovered  in  the  quaternary  rocks.  This  negative  result,  how- 
ever, always  constituted  the  chief  objection  against  the  very 
early  origin  of  our  species. 

The  errors  and  deceptions  which  were  at  first  encountered 


6  INTRODUCTION. 

tended  perhaps  to  cool  down  the  zeal  of  the  earlier  naturalists, 
and  thus  retarded  the  solution  of  the  problem.  It  is  a  well- 
known  story  about  the  fossil  salamander  of  the  GEningen  quarries, 
which,  on  the  testimony  of  Scheuchzer,  was  styled,  in  1726,  the 
"human  witness  of  the  deluge"  (homo  diluvii  testis}.  In  1787, 
Peter  Camper  recognised  the  fact  that  this  pretended pre-Adamite 
was  nothing  but  a  reptile ;  this  discomfiture,  which  was  a  source 
of  amusement  to  the  whole  of  scientific  Europe,  was  a  real 
injury  to  the  cause  of  antediluvian  man.  By  the  sovereign 
ascendancy  of  ridicule,  his  existence  was  henceforth  relegated  to 
the  domain  of  fable. 

The  first  step  in  advance  was,  however,  taken  in  1774.  Some 
human  bones,  mingled  with  remains  of  the  great  bear  and  other 
species  then  unknown,  were  discovered  by  J.  F.  Esper,  in  the 
celebrated  cavern  of  Gailenreuth,  in  Bavaria. 

Even  before  this  date,  in  the  early  part  of  the  eighteenth, 
century,  Kemp,  an  Englishman,  had  found  in  London,  by  the 
side  of  elephants'  teeth,  a  stone  hatchet,  similar  to  those  which 
have  been  subsequently  found  in  great  numbers  in  various  parts 
of  the  world.  This  hatchet  was  roughly  sketched,  and  the 
design  published  in  1715.  The  original  still  exists  in  the 
collection  at  the  British  Museum; 

In  1797,  John  Frere,  an  English  archaeologist,  discovered  at 
Hoxne,  in  Suffolk,  under  strata  of  quaternary  rocks,  some  flint 
weapons  intermingled  with  bones  of  animals  belonging  to  extinct 
species.  Esper  concluded  that  these  weapons  and  the  men  who 
made  them  were  anterior  to  the  formation  of  the  beds  in  which 
they  were  found. 

According  to  M.  Lartet,  the  honour  of  having  been  the  first 
to  proclaim  the  high  antiquity  of  the  human  species  must  be 
attributed  to  Aime"  Boue,  a  French  geologist  residing  in  Ger- 
many. In  1823,  he  found  in  the  quaternary  loam  (loess)  of  the 
Valley  of  the  Rhine  some  human  bones  which  he  presented  to 
Cuvier  and  Brongniart  as  those  of  men  who  lived  in  the 
quaternary  epoch. 

In  1823,  Dr.  Buckland,  the  English  geologist,  published  his 
"  Reliquiae  Diluvianae,"  a  work  which  was  principally  devoted  to- 
a  description  of  the  Kirkdale  Cave,  in  which  the  author  com- 


INTRODUCTION. 

bined  all  the  facts  then  known  which  tended  in  favour  of  the 
coexistence  of  man  and  the  antediluvian  animals. 

Cuvier,  too,  was  not  so  indisposed  as  he  is  generally  said  to 
have  been,  to  admit  the  existence  of  man  in  the  quaternary 
epoch.  In  his  work  on  "  Ossements  Fossiles,"  and  his  "Discours 
sur  les  Revolutions  du  Globe,"  the  immortal  naturalist  discusses 
the  pros  and  cons  with  regaid  to  this  question,  and,  notwith- 
standing the  insufficiency  of  the  data  which  were  then  forthcoming, 
he  felt  warranted  in  saying  : 

"  I  am  not  inclined  to  conclude  that  man  had  no  existence  at 
all  before  the  epoch  of  the  great  revolutions  of  the  earth.  .  .  . 
He  might  have  inhabited  certain  districts  of  no  great  extent, 
whence,  after  these  terrible  events,  he  repeopled  the  world  ;  per- 
haps also,  the  spots  where  he  abode  were  swallowed  up,  and  his 
bones  lie  buried  under  the  beds  of  the  present  seas." 

The  confident  appeals  which  have  been  made  to  Cuvier's 
authority  against  the  high  antiquity  of  man  are,  therefore,  not 
justified  by  the  facts. 

A  second  and  more  decisive  step  in  advance  was  taken  by  the 
discovery  of  shaped  flints  and  other  implements  belonging  to 
primitive  man,  existing  in  diluvial  beds. 

In  1826,  M.  Tournal,  of  Narbonne,  a  French  archaeologist  and 
geologist,  published  an  account  of  the  discoveries  which  he  had 
made  in  a  cave  in  the  department  of  Aude,  in  which  he  found 
bones  of  the  bison  and  reindeer  fashioned  by  the  hand  of  man, 
accompanied  by  the  remains  of  edible  shell-fish,  which  must  have 
been  brought  there  by  men  who  had  made  their  residence  in 
this  cave. 

Three  years  afterwards,  M.  de  Christol,  of  Montpellier,  subse- 
quently Professor  in  the  University  of  Science  of  Grenoble,  found 
human  bones  intimately  mixed  up  with  remains  of  the  great  bear, 
hyaena,  rhinoceros,  &c.,  in  the  caverns  of  Pondres  and  Souvignar- 
gues  (Herault).  In  the  last  of  these  caverns  fragments  of  pottery 
formed  a  part  of  the  relics. 

All  these  striking  facts  were  put  together  and  discussed  by 
Marcel  de  Serres,  Professor  in  the  University  of  Science  at 
Montpellier,  in  his  "  Essai  sur  les  Cavernes." 

The  two  bone-caverns  of  Engis  and  Enghihoul  (Belgium)  have 


8  INTRODUCTION. 

furnished  proofs  of  the  same  kind.  In  1833,  Schmerling,  a  learned 
Belgian  geologist,  discovered  in  these  caverns  two  human  skulls, 
mixed  with  the  teeth  of  the  rhinoceros,  elephant,  bear,  hyaena, 
&c.  The  human  bones  were  rubbed  and  worn  away  like  those 
of  the  animals.  The  bones  of  the  latter  presented,  besides,  traces 
of  human  workmanship.  Lastly,  as  if  no  evidence  should  be 
wanting,  flints,  chipped  to  form  knives .  and  arrow-heads,  were 
found  in  the  same  spot. 

In  connection  with  his  laborious  investigations,  Schmerling 
published  a  work  which  is  now  much  esteemed,  and  proves  that 
the  Belgian  geologist  well  merited  the  title  of  being  the  founder 
of  the  science  of  the  antiquity  of  man.  In  this  work  Schmerling 
describes  and  represents  a  vast  quantity  of  objects  which  had 
been  discovered  in  the  caverns  of  Belgium,  and  introduced  to 
notice  the  human  skull  which  has  since  become  so  famous  under 
the  name  of  the  Engis  skull.  But  at  that  time  scientific  men  of 
all  countries  were  opposed  to  this  class  of  ideas,  and  thus  the 
discoveries  of  the  Belgian  geologist  attracted  no  more  attention 
than  those  of  his  French  brethren  who  had  brought  forward  facts 
of  a  similar  nature. 

In  1835,  M.  Joly,  at  that  time  Professor  at  the  Lyceum  of 
Montpellier— where  I  (the  author)  attended  on  his  course  of 
Natural  History — now  Professor  in  the  Faculty  of  Sciences  at 
Toulouse,  found  in  the  cave  of  Nabrigas  (Lozere)  the  skull  of  a 
cave-bear,  on  which  an  arrow  had  left  its  evident  traces.  Close 
by  was  a  fragment  of  pottery  bearing  the  imprints  of  the  fingers 
of  the  man  who  moulded  it. 

We  may  well  be  surprised  that  in  the  face  of  all  these  previous 
discoveries,  Boucher  de  Perthes,  the  ardent  apostle  in  proclaim- 
ing the  high  antiquity  of  our  species,  should  have  met  with 
so  much  opposition  and  incredulity ;  or  that  he  should  have  had 
to  strive  against  so  much  indifference,  when,  beginning  with  the 
year  1836,  he  began  to  maintain  this  idea  in  a  series  of  commu- 
nications addressed  to  the  Societe  d'Emulation  of  Abbeville. 

The  horizontal  strata  of  the  quaternary  beds,  known  under  the 
name  of  diluvial,  form  banks  of  different  shades  and  material, 
which  place  before  our  eyes  in  indelible  characters  the  ancient 
history  of  our  globe.  The  organic  remains  which  are  found  in 


INTRODUCTION.  9 

them  are  those  of  beings  who  were  witnesses  to  the  diluvial  cata- 
clysm, and  perhaps  preceded  it  by  many  ages. 

"  Therefore,"  says  the  prophet  of  Abbeville,  "  it  is  in  these  ruins 
of  the  old  world,  and  in  the  deposits  which  have  become  his  sole 
archives,  that  we  must  seek  out  the  traditions  of  primitive  man  ; 
and  in  default  of  coins  and  inscriptions  we  must  rely  on  the 
rough  stones  which,  in  all  their  imperfection,  prove  the  existence 
of  man  no  less  surely  than  all  the  glory  of  a  Louvre. 

Strong  in  this  conviction,  M.  Boucher  de  Perthes  devoted  him- 
self ardently  to  the  search  in  the  diluvial  beds,  either  for  the  bony 
relics  of  man,  or,  at  all  events,  for  the  material  indications  of  his 
primitive  industry.  In  the  year  1838  he  had  the  honour  of 
submitting  to  the  Societe  d'Emulation,  at  Abbeville,  his  first 
specimens  of  the  antediluvian  hatchet. 

In  the  course  of  the  year  1839,  Boucher  de  Perthes  took  these 
hatchets  to  Paris  and  showed  them  to  several  members  of  the 
Institute.  MM.  Alexandre  Brongniart,  Flourens,  Elie  de  Beau- 
mont, Cordier,  and  Jomard,  gave  at  first  some  encouragement  to 
researches  which  promised  to  be  so  fruitful  in  results  ;  but  this 
favourable  feeling  was  not  destined  to  last  long. 

These  rough  specimens  of  wrought  flint,  in  which  Boucher  de 
Perthes  already  recognised  a  kind  of  hatchet,  presented  very 
indistinct  traces  of  chipping,  and  the  angles  were  blunted  ;  their 
flattened  shape,  too,  differed  from  that  of  the  polished  hatchets, 
the  only  kind  that  were  then  known.  It  was  certainly  neces- 
sary to  see  with  the  eyes  of  faith  in  order  to  discern  the  traces 
of  man's  work.  "I,"  says  the  Abbeville  archaeologist,  "had 
these  'eyes  of  faith,'  but  no  one  shared  them  with  me."  He 
then  made  up  his  mind  to  seek  for  help  in  his  labour,  and 
trained  workmen  to  dig  in  the  diluvial  beds.  Before  long  he 
was  able  to  collect,  in  the  quaternary  beds  at  Abbeville,  twenty 
specimens  of  flint  evidently  wrought  by  the  hand  of  man. 

In  1842  the  Geological  Society  of  London  received  a  communi- 
cation from  Mr.  Godwin  Austen,  who  had  found  in  Kent's  Hole 
various  wrought  objects,  accompanied  by  animal  remains,  which 
must  have  remained  there  since  the  deluge. 

In  1844  appeared  Lund's  observations  on  the  caverns  of  Brazil. 

Lund  explored   as   many  as   800   caves.      In  one   of  them, 


io  INTRODUCTION. 

situated  not  far  from  the  lake  of  Semidouro,  he  found  the  bones 
of  no  less  than  thirty  individuals  of  the  human  species,  showing 
a  similar  state  of  decomposition  to  that  of  the  bones  of  animals 
which  were  along  with  them.  Among  these  animals  were  an 
ape,  various  carnivora,  rodents,  pachyderms,  sloths,  &c.  From 
these  facts,  Lund  inferred  that  man  must  have  been  contem- 
poraneous with  the  megatherium,  the  mylodon,  &c.,  animals 
which  characterised  the  quaternary  epoch. 

Nevertheless,  M.  Desnoyers,  librarian  of  the  Museum  of  Natural 
History  at  Paris,  in  a  very  learned  article  on  "  Grottos  and 
Caverns,"  published  in  1845  in  the  "  Dictionnaire  Universel 
d'Histoire  Naturelle,"  still  energetically  expressed  himself  in 
opposition  to  the  hypothesis  of  the  high  antiquity  of  man.  But 
the  discoveries  continued  to  go  on,  and,  at  the  present  time, 
M.  Desnoyers  himself  figures  among  the  partisans  of  the  ante- 
diluvian man.  He  has  even  gone  beyond  their  opinions,  as  he 
forms  one  among  those  who  would  carry  back  to  the  tertiary 
epoch  the  earliest  date  of  the  appearance  of  our  species. 

In  1847,  M'Enery  found  in  Kent's  Hole,  a  cavern  in  England, 
under  a  layer  of  stalagmite,  the  remains  of  men  and  antediluvian 
animals  mingled  together. 

The  year  1847  was  also  marked  by  the  appearance  of  the  first 
volume  of  the  "Antiquites  Celtiques  et  Antediluviennes,"  by 
Boucher  de  Perthes ;  this  contained  about  1600  plates  of  the 
objects  which  had  been  discovered  in  the  excavations  which  the 
author  had  caused  to  be  made  since  the  year  1836. 

The  strata  at  Abbeville,  where  Boucher  de  Perthes  carried  out 
his  researches,  belong  to  the  quaternary  epoch. 

Dr.  Rigollot,  who  had  been  for  ten  years  one  of  the  most 
decided  opponents  of  the  opinions  of  Boucher  de  Perthes, 
actually  himself  discovered  in  1854  some  wrought  flints  in  the 
quaternary  deposits  at  Saint-Acheul,  near  Amiens,  and  it  was 
not  long  before  he  took  his  stand  under  the  banner  of  the 
Abbeville  archaeologists. 

Thefatma  of  the  Amiens  deposits  is  similar  to  that  of  the 
Abbeville  beds.  The  lower  deposits  of  gravel,  in  which  the 
wrought  flints  are  met  with,  have  been  formed  by  fresh  water, 
and  have  not  undergone  either  alteration  or  disturbance.  The 


INTRODUCTION.  11 

flints  wrought  by  the  hand  of  man  which  have  been  found  in 
them,  have  in  all  probability  lain  there  since  the  epoch  of  the 
formation  of  these  deposits — an  epoch  a  little  later  than  the 
diluvial  period.  The  number  of  wrought  flints  which  have  been 
taken  out  of  the  Abbeville  beds  is  really  immense.  At  Menche- 
court,  in  twenty  years,  about  100  well-characterised  hatchets 
have  been  collected ;  at  Saint-Gilles,  twenty  very  rough,  and  as 
many  well-made  ones;  at  Moulin-Quignon,  150  to  200  well- 
formed  hatchets. 

Similar  relics  of  primitive  industry  have  been  found  also  in 
other  localities.  In  1853,  M.  Noulet  discovered  some  in  the 
Infernat  Valley  (Haute-Garonne)  ;  in  1858,  the  English  geologists, 
Messrs.  Prestwich,  Falconer,  Pengelly,  &c.,  also  found  some  in 
the  lower  strata  of  the  Baumann  cavern  in  the  Hartz. 

To  the  English  geologists  whose  names  we  have  just  mentioned 
must  be  attributed  the  merit  of  having  been  the  first  to  bring 
before  the  scientific  world  the  due  value  of  the  labours  of  Boucher 
de  Perthes,  who  had  as  yet  been  unsuccessful  in  obtaining  any 
acceptation  of  his  ideas  in  France.  Dr.  Falconer,  Vice-president 
of  the  Geological  Society  in  London,  visited  the  department  of 
the  Somme  in  order  to  study  the  beds  and  the  objects  found  in 
them.  After  him  Messrs.  Prestwich  and  Evans  came  three  times 
to  Abbeville  in  the  year  1859.  They  all  brought  back  to  England 
a  full  conviction  of  the  antiquity  and  intact  state  of  the  beds 
explored,  and  also  of  the  existence  of  man  before  the  deluge  of 
the  quaternary  epoch. 

In  another  journey,  made  in  company  with  Messrs.  Flower, 
Mylne,  and  Godwin  Austen,  Messrs.  Prestwich,  Falconer,  and 
Evans  were  present  at  the  digging  out  of  human  bones  and  flint 
hatchets  from  the  quarries  of  Saint-Acheul.  Lastly,  Sir  C.  Lyell 
visited  the  spot,  and  the  English  geologist,  who,  up  to  that  time, 
had  opposed  the  idea  of  the  existence  of  antediluvian  man,  was 
able  to  say,  Veni,  vidi,  victus  fui!  At  the  meeting  of  the  British 
Association  at  Aberdeen,  September  the  1 5th,  1855,  Sir  C.  Lyell 
declared  himself  to  be  in  favour  of  the  existence  of  quaternary- 
man  ;  and  this  declaration,  made  by  the  President  of  the  Geo- 
logical Society  of  London,  added  considerable  weight  to  the  new 
ideas. 


12  INTRODUCTION. 

M.  Hebert,  Professor  of  Geology  at  the  Sorbonne,  next  took 
his  stand  under  the  same  banner. 

M.  Albert  Gaudry,  another  French  geologist,  made  a  statement 
to  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  that  he,  too,  had  found  flint  hatchets, 
together  with  the  teeth  of  horses  and  fossil  oxen,  in  the  beds  of 
the  Parisian  diluvium. 

During  the  same  year  M.  Gosse,  the  younger,  explored  the 
sand-pits  of  Crenelle  and  the  avenue  of  La  Mothe-Piquet  in 
Paris,  and  obtained  from  them  various  flint  implements,  mingled 
with  the  bones  of  the  mammoth,  fossil  ox,  &c. 

Facts  of  a  similar  character  were  established  at  Precy-sur-Oise, 
and  in  the  diluvial  deposits  at  Giviy. 

The  Marquis  de  Vibraye,  also,  found  in  the  cave  of  Arcy 
various  human  bones,  especially  a  piece  of  a  jaw-bone,  mixed 
with  the  bones  of  animals  of  extinct  species. 

In  1859,  M.  A.  Fontan  found  in  the  cave  of  Massat  (Depart- 
ment of  Ariege),  not  only  utensils  testifying  to  the  former  pre- 
sence of  man,  but  also  human  teeth,  mixed  up  with  the  remains 
of  the  great  bear  (Ursus  spelczus),  the  fossil  hyaena  (Hyena  spelcea), 
and  the  cave-lion  (Felis  spelced). 

In  1 86 1,  M.  A.  Milne  Edwards  found  in  the  cave  of  Lourdes 
(Tarn)  certain  relics  of  human  industry  by  the  side  of  the  bones 
of  fossil  animals. 

The  valleys  of  the  Oise  and  the  Seine  have  also  added  their 
contingent  to  the  supply  of  antediluvian  remains.  In  the  sand- 
pits in  the  environs  of  Paris,  at  Grenelle,  Levallois-Perret,  and 
Neuilly,  several  naturalists,  including  MM.  Gosse,  Martin,  and 
Reboux,  found  numerous  flint  implements,  associated,  in  certain 
cases,  with  the  bones  of  the  elephant  and  hippopotamus.  In  the 
valley  of  the  Oise,  at  Precy,  near  Creil,  MM.  Peigne  Delacour 
and  Robert  likewise  collected  a  few  hatchets. 

Lastly,  a  considerable  number  of  French  departments,  especially 
those  of  the  north  and  centre,  have  been  successfully  explored. 
We  may  mention  the  departments  of  Pas-de-Calais,  Aisne, 
Loire-et-Cher,  Indre-et-Loire,  Vienne,  Allier,  Yonne,  Saone-et- 
Loire,  Herault,  Tarn-et-Garonne,  &c. 

In  England,  too,  discoveries  were  made  of  an  equally  valuable 
character.  The  movement  which  was  commenced  in  France  by 


INTRODUCTION.  13 

Boucher  de  Perthes,  spread  in  England  with  remarkable  rapidity. 
In  many  directions  excavations  were  made  which  produced 
excellent  results. 

In  the  gravel  beds  which  lie  near  Bedford,  Mr.  Wyatt  met  with 
flints  resembling  the  principal  types  of  those  of  Amiens  and  Abbe- 
ville ;  they  were  found  in  company  with  the  remains  of  the 
mammoth,  rhinoceros,  hippopotamus,  ox,  horse,  and  deer. 
Similar  discoveries  were  made  in  Suffolk,  Kent,  Hertfordshire, 
Hampshire,  Wiltshire,  &c. 

Some  time  after  his  return  from  Abbeville,  Mr.  Evans,  going 
round  the  museum  of  the  Society  of  Antiquaries  in  London,  found 
in  their  rooms  some  specimens  exactly  similar  to  those  in  the 
collection  of  Boucher  de  Perthes.  On  making  inquiries  as  to 
their  origin,  he  found  that  they  had  been  obtained  from  the 
gravel  at  Hoxne  by  Mr.  Frere,  who  had  collected  them  there, 
together  with  the  bones  of  extinct  animals,  all  of  which  he  had 
presented  to  the  museum,  after  having  given  a  description  of 
them  in  the  "  Archaeologia "  of  1800,  with  this  remark:  .... 
"Fabricated  and  used  by  a  people  who  had  not  the  use  of  metals 
....  The  situation  in  which  these  weapons  were  found  may 
tempt  us  to  refer  them  to  a  very  remote  period  indeed,  even 
beyond  that  of  the  present  world." 

Thus,  even  at  the  commencement  of  the  present  century,  they 
were  in  possession,  in  England,  of  proofs  of  the  coexistence  of 
man  with  the  great  extinct  pachyderms  ;  but,  owing  to  neglect 
of  the  subject,  scarcely  any  attention  has  been  paid  to  them. 

We  now  come  to  the  most  remarkable  and  most  characteristic 
discoveries  of  this  class  which  have  ever  been  made.  We  allude 
to  the  explorations  made  by  M.  Edouard  Lartet,  during  the  year 
1860,  in  the  curious  pre-historic  human  burial-place  at  Aurignac 
(Haute-Garonne). 

Going  down  the  kill  on  the  road  leading  from  Aurignac,  after 
proceeding  about  a  mile,  we  come  to  the  point  where,  on  the  other 
side  of  the  dale,  the  ridge  of  the  hill  called  Fajoles  rises,  not  more 
than  sixty-five  feet  above  a  rivulet.  We  then  may  notice,  on  the 
northern  slope  of  this  eminence,  an  escarpment  of  the  rock,  by 
the  side  of  which  there  is  a  kind  of  niche  about  six  feet  deep,  the 
arched  opening  of  it  facing  towards  the  north-west.  This  little 


14  INTRODUCTION. 

cave  is  situated  forty-two  feet  above  the  rivulet.  Below,  the 
calcareous  soil  slopes  down  towards  the  stream. 

The  discovery  of  this  hollow,  which  is  now  cleared  out,  was 
made  entirely  by  chance.  It  was  hidden  by  a  mass  of  debris  of 
rock  and  vegetable  earth  which  had  crumbled  down  ;  it  had, 
in  fact,  only  been  known  as  a  rabbits'  hole.  In  1842,  an  exca- 
vating labourer,  named  Bonnemaison,  took  it  into  his  head  one 
day  to  thrust  his  arm  into  this  hole,  and  out  of  it  he  drew  forth 
a  large  bone.  Being  rather  curious  to  search  into  the  mystery, 
he  made  an  excavation  in  the  slope  below  the  hole,  and,  after 
some  hours'  labour,  came  upon  a  slab  of  sandstone  which  closed  up 
an  arched  opening.  Behind  the  slab  of  stone,  he  discovered  a 
hollow  in  which  a  quantity  of  human  bones  were  stored  up. 

It  was  not  long  before  the  news  of  this  discovery  was  spread  far 
and  wide.  Crowds  of  curious  visitors  flocked  to  the  spot,  and  many 
endeavoured  to  explain  the  origin  of  these  human  remains,  the 
immense  antiquity  of  which  was  attested  by  their  excessive  fra- 
gility. The  old  inhabitants  of  the  locality  took  it  into  their  heads 
to  recall  to  recollection  a  band  of  coiners  and  robbers,  who,  half  a 
century  before,  had  infested  the  country.  This  decidedly  popular 
inquest  and  decision  was  judged  perfectly  satisfactory,  and  every- 
one agreed  in  declaring  that  the  cavern  which  had  justbeen  brought 
to  light  was  nothing  but  the  retreat  of  these  malefactors,  who  con- 
cealed all  the  traces  of  their  crimes  by  hiding  the  bodies  of  their 
victims  in  this  cave,  which  was  known  to  these  criminals  only. 

Doctor  Amiel,  Mayor  of  Aurignac,  caused  all  these  bones  to  be 
collected  together,  and  they  were  buried  in  the  parish  cemetery. 
Nevertheless,  before  the  re-inhumation  was  proceeded  with,  he  re- 
corded the  fact  that  the  skeletons  were  those  of  seventeen  indivi- 
duals of  both  sexes.  In  addition  to  these  skeletons,  there  were 
also  found  in  the  cave  a  number  of  little  discs,  or  flat  rings,  formed 
of  the  shell  of  a  species  of  cockle  (cardium).  Flat  rings  altogether 
similar  to  these  are  not  at  all  unfrequent  in  the  necklaces  and 
other  ornaments  of  Assyrian  antiquity  found  in  Nineveh. 

Eighteen  years  after  this  event — that  is,  in  1860 — M.  Edouard 
Lartet  paid  a  visit  to  Aurignac.  All  the  details  of  the  above- 
named  discovery  were  related  to  him.  After  the  long  interval 
which  had  elapsed,  no  one,  not  even  the  grave-digger  himself, 


INTRODUCTION.  15 

could  recollect  the  precise  spot  where  these  human  remains  had 
been  buried  in  the  village  cemetery.  These  precious  relics  were 
therefore  lost  to  science. 

M.  Lartet  resolved,  however,  to  set  on  foot  some  excavations 
in  the  cave  from  which  they  had  been  taken,  and  he  soon  found 
himself  in  possession  of  unhoped-for  treasures.  The  floor  of  the 
cavern  itself  had  remained  intact,  and  was  covered  with  a  layer 
of  "made  ground"  mixed  with  fragments  of  stone.  Outside  this 
same  cave  M.  Lartet  discovered  a  bed  of  ashes  and  charcoal, 
which,  however,  did  not  extend  to  the  interior.  This  bed  was 
covered  with  "  made  ground "  of  an  ossiferous  and  vegetable 
character.  Inside  the  cave,  the  ground  contained  bones  of  the 
bear,  the  fox,  the  reindeer,  the  bison,  the  horse,  &c.,  all  inter- 
mingled with  numerous  relics  of  human  industry,  such  as 
implements  made  of  stag  or  reindeer's  horn,  carefully  pointed 
at  one  end  and  bevelled  off  at  the  other — a  pierced  handle 
of  reindeer's  horn — flint  knives  and  weapons  of  different  kinds  ; 
lastly,  a  canine-tooth  of  a  bear,  roughly  carved  in  the  shape  of  a 
bird's  head,  and  pierced  with  a  hole,  &c. 

The  excavations  having  been  carried  to  a  lower  level,  brought 
to  light  the  remains  of  the  bear,  the  wild-cat,  the  cave-hyaena, 
the  wolf,  the  mammoth,  the  horse,  the  stag,  the  reindeer,  the  ox, 
the  rhinoceros,  &c.  &c.  It  was,  in  fact,  a  complete  Noah's  ark. 
These  bones  were  all  broken  lengthwise,  and  some  of  them  were 
carbonised.  Stria  and  notches  were  found  on  them,  which  could 
only  have  been  made  by  cutting  instruments. 

M.  Lartet,  after  long  and  patient  investigations,  came  to  the 
conclusion  that  the  cave  of  Aurignac  was  a  human  burial-place, 
contemporary  with  the  mammoth,  the  Rhinocerus  tichorhinus, 
and  other  great  mammals  of  the  quaternary  epoch. 

The  mode  in  which  the  long  bones  were  broken  shows  that 
they  had  been  cracked  with  a  view  of  extracting  the  marrow ; 
and  the  notches  on  them  prove  that  the  flesh  had  been  cut  off 
them  with  sharp  instruments.  The  ashes  point  to  the  existence 
of  a  fire,  in  which  some  of  these  bones  had  been  burnt.  Men 
must  have  resorted  to  this  cavern  in  order  to  fulfil  certain  funereal 
rites.  The  weapons  and  animals'  bones  must  have  been  deposited 
there  in  virtue  of  some  funereal  dedication,  of  which  numerous 


16  INTRODUCTION. 

instances  are  found  in  Druidical  or  Celtic  monuments  and  in 
Gallic  tombs. 

Such  are  the  valuable  discoveries,  and  such  the  new  facts 
which  were  the  result  of  the  investigations  made  by  M.  Edouard 
Lartet  in  the  cave  of  Aurignac.  In  point  of  fact,  they  left  no 
doubt  whatever  as  to  the  coexistence  of  man  with  the  great 
antediluvian  animals. 

In  1862,  Doctor  Felix  Garrigou,  of  Tarrascon,  a  distinguished 
geologist,  published  the  results  of  the  researches  which  he,  in 
conjunction  with  MM.  Rames  and  Filhol,  had  made  in  the 
caverns  of  Ariege.  These  explorers  found  the  lower  jaw-bones 
of  the  great  bear,  which,  with  their  sharp  and  projecting  canine- 
teeth,  had  been  employed  by  man  as  an  offensive  weapon,  almost 
in  the  same  way  as  Samson  used  the  jaw-bone  of  an  ass  in 
fighting  with  the  Philistines. 

"  It  was  principally,"  says  M.  Garrigou,  "  in  the  caves  of  Lom- 
brives,  Lherm,  Bouicheta,  and  Maz-d'Azil  that  we  found  the 
jaw-bones  of  the  great  bear  and  the  cave-lion,  which  were 
acknowledged  to  have  been  wrought  by  the  hand  of  man,  not 
only  by  us,  but  also  by  the  numerous  French  and  English 
savants  who  examined  them  and  asked  for  some  of  them  to 
place  in  their  collections.  The  number  of  these  jaw-bones  now 
reaches  to  more  than  a  hundred.  Furnished  as  they  are  with 
an  immense  canine-tooth,  and  carved  so  as  to  give  greater 
facility  for  grasping  them,  they  must  have  formed,  when  in  a 
fresh  state,  formidable  weapons  in  the  hands  of  primitive 
man 

"  These  animals  belong  to  species  which  are  now  extinct,  and 
if  their  bones  while  still  in  a  fresh  state  (since  they  were  gnawed 
by  hyaenas)  were  used  as  weapons,  man  must  have  been  contem- 
porary with  them." 

In  the  cave  of  Bruniquel  (Tarn-et-Garonne),  which  was  visited 
in  1862  by  MM.  Garrigou  and  Filhol,  and  other  savants,  there 
were  found,  under  a  very  hard  osseous  breccia,  an  ancient  fire- 
hearth  with  ashes  and  charcoal,  the  broken  and  calcined  bones  of 
ruminants  of  various  extinct  species,  flint  flakes  used  as  knives, 
facetted  nuclei,  and  both  triangular  and  quadrangular  arrow- 
heads of  great  distinctness,  utensils  in  stags'  horn  and  bone — in 


INTRODUCTION.  17 

short,  everything  which  could  prove  the  former  presence  of 
primitive  man. 

About  three-quarters  of  a  mile  below  the  cave  there  was  sub- 
sequently found,  at  a  depth  of  about  twenty  feet,  an  osseous 
breccia  similar  to  the  first,  and  likewise  containing  broken  bones 
and  a  series  of  ancient  fire-hearths  filled  with  ashes  and  objects 
of  antediluvian  industry.  Bones,  teeth,  and  flints  were  to  be 
collected  in  bushels. 

At  the  commencement  of  1863,  M.  Garrigou  presented  to  the 
Geological  Society  of  France  the  objects  which  had  been  found 
in  the  caves  of  Lherm  and  Bouicheta,  and  the  Abbe  Bourgeois 
published  some  remarks  on  the  wrought  flints  from  the  dihwi-um 
of  Pontlevoy. 

This,  therefore,  was  the  position  of  the  question  in  respect  to 
fossil  man,  when,  in  1863,  the  scientific  world  .were  made 
acquainted  with  the  fact  of  the  discovery  of  a  human  jaw-bone 
in  the  diluvial  beds  of  Moulin-Quignon,  near  Abbeville.  We 
will  relate  the  circumstances  attending  this  memorable  discovery. 

On  the  23rd  of  March,  1863,  an  excavator  who  was  working 
in  the  sand-quarries  at  Moulin-Quignon  brought  to  Boucher  de 
Perthes  at  Abbeville,  a  flint  hatchet  and  a  small  fragment  of 
bone  which  he  had  just  picked  up.  Having  cleaned  off  the 
earthy  coat  which  covered  it,  Boucher  de  Perthes  recognised  this 
bone  to  be  a  human  molar.  He  immediately  visited  the  spot, 
and  assured  himself  that  the  locality  where  these  objects  had 
been  found  was  an  argilo-ferruginous  vein,  impregnated  with 
some  colouring  matter  which  appeared  to  contain  organic 
remains.  This  layer  formed  a  portion  of  a  virgin  bed,  as  it  is 
called  by  geologists,  that  is,  without  any  infiltration  or  secondary 
introduction. 

On  the  28th  of  March  another  excavator  brought  to  Boucher  de 
Perthes  a  second  human  tooth,  remarking  at  the  same  time,  "  that 
something  resembling  a  bone  was  just  then  to  be  seen  in  the  sand.'' 
Boucher  de  Perthes  immediately  repaired  to  the  spot,  and  in  the 
presence  of  MM.  Dimpre  the  elder  and  younger,  and  several 
members  of  the  Abbeville  Societe  d' Emulation,  he  personally  ex- 
tracted from  the  soil  the  half  of  a  human  lower  jaw-bone,  covered 
with  an  earthy  crust.  A  few  inches  from  this,  a  flint  hatchet 

c 


i8 


INTRODUCTION. 


was  discovered,  covered  with  the  same  black  patina  as  the  jaw- 
bone. The  level  where  it  was  found  was  about  fifteen  feet  below 
the  surface  of  the  ground. 

After  this  event  was  duly  announced,  a  considerable  number 
of  geologists  flocked  to  Abbeville,  about  the  middle  of  the  month 
of  April.  The  Abbe  Bourgeois,  MM.  Brady-Buteux,  Carpenter 
Falconer,  &c.,  came  one  after  the  other,  to  verify  the  locality  from 
which  the  human  jaw-bone  had  been  extracted.  All  were  fully 
convinced  of  the  intact  state  of  the  bed  and  the  high  antiquity 
of  the  bone  which  had  been  found. 

Boucher  de  Perthes  also  discovered  in  the  same  bed  of  gravel 
two  mammoth's  teeth,  and  a  certain  number  of  wrought  hatchets. 
Finally,  he  found  among  the  bones  which  had  been  taken  from 


Fig.  i. — Human  Jaw-bone  found  at  Moulin-Quignon,  near  Abbeville,  in  1863. 

the  Menchecourt  quarries  in  the  early  part  of  April,  a  fragment 
of  another  jaw-bone  and  six  separate  teeth,  which  were  recognised 
by  Dr.  Falconer  to  be  also  human. 

The  jaw-bone  found  at  Moulin-Quignon  is  very  well  preserved. 
It  is  rather  small  in  size,  and  appears  to  have  belonged  to  an  aged 
individual  of  small  stature.  It  does  not  possess  that  ferocious 
aspect  which  is  noticed  in  the  jaw-bones  of  certain'of  the  existing 
human  races.  The  obliquity  of  the  molar-tooth  may  be  explained 
by  supposing  some  accident,  for  the  molar  which  stood  next  had 


INTRODUCTION.  19 

fallen  out  during  the  lifetime  of  the  individual,  leaving  a  gap 
which  favoured  the  obliquity  of  the  tooth  which  remained  in  the 
jaw.  This  peculiarity  is  found  also  in  several  of  the  human  heads 
in  the  collection  of  the  Museum  of  Natural  History  in  Paris. 

The  jaw-bone  of  the  man  of  Moulin-Quignon,  which  is  repre- 
sented here  (Fig.  i)  in  its  natural  size,  and  drawn  from  the  object 
itself,  which  is  preserved  in  the  Anthropological  Gallery  of  the 
Museum  of  Natural  History  of  Paris,  does  not  show  any  decided 
points  of  difference  when  compared  with  those  of  individuals  of 
existing  races. 

The  same  conclusion  was  arrived  at  as  the  result  of  the  com- 
parative examination  which  was  made  of  the  jaw-bones  found  by 
MM.  Lartet  and  De  Vibraye  in  the  caves  of  Aurignac  and  Arcy  ; 
the  latter  remains  were  studied  by  M.  Quatrefages  in  conjunction 
with  Pruner-Bey,  formerly  physician  to  the  Viceroy  of  Egypt, 
and  one  of  the  most  distinguished  French  anthropologists. 

On  the  2Oth  of  April,  1863,  M.  de  Quatrefages  announced  to 
the  institute  the  discovery  which  had  been  made  by  Boucher  de 
Perthes,  and  he  presented  to  the  above-named  learned  body  the 
interesting  object  itself,  which  had  been  sent  from  Abbeville. 

When  the  news  of  this  discovery  arrived  in  England  it  pro- 
duced no  slight  sensation. 

Some  of  the  English  savants  who  had  more  specially  devoted 
their  attention  to  the  study  of  this  question,  such  as  Messrs.  Christy, 
Falconer,  Carpenter,  and  Busk,  went  over  to  France,  and  in  con- 
junction with  Boucher  de  Perthes  and  several  members  of  the 
Academic  des  Sciences  of  Paris,  examined  the  exact  locality  in 
which  the  hatchets  and  human  jaw-bone  had  been  found  ;  they 
unanimously  agreed  in  recognising  the  correctness  of  the  conclu- 
sions arrived  at  by  the  indefatigable  geologist  of  Abbeville.* 

This  discovery  of  the  hatchets  and  the  human  jaw-bone  in  the 
quaternary  beds  of  Moulin-Quignon  completed  the  demonstration 
of  an  idea  already  supported  by  an  important  mass  of  evidence. 
Setting  aside  its  own  special  value,  this  discovery,  added  to  so 

*  It  should  rather  have  been  said,  that  the  ultimate  and  well-considered  judgment 
of  the  English  geologists  was  against  the  authenticity  of  the  Moulin-Quignon  jaw. — 
See  Dr.  Falconer's  ' *  Palseontological  Memoirs,"  vol.  ii.  p.  610 ;  and  Sir  C.  Lyell's 
"Antiquity  of  Man,"  3rd  eel.  p.  515.  (Note  to  Eng.  Trans.) 


20  INTRODUCTION. 

many  others,  could  not  fail  to  carry  conviction  into  most  minds. 
From  this  time  forth  the  doctrine  of  the  high  antiquity  of  the 
human  race  became  an  acknowledged  idea  in  the  scientific  world. 

Before  closing  our  historical  sketch,  we  shall  have  to  ask,  what 
was  the  precise  geological  epoch  to  which  we  shall  have  to  carry 
back  the  date  of  man's  first  appearance  on  this  our  earth. 

The  beds  which  are  anterior  to  the  present  period,  the  series  of 
which  forms  the  solid  crust  of  our  globe,  have  been  divided,  as  is 
well  known,  into  five  groups,  corresponding  to  the  same  number 
of  periods  of  the  physical  development  of  the  earth.  These  are 
in  their  order  of  age :  the  primitive  rocks,  the  transition  rocks, 
the  secondary  rocks,  the  tertiary  and  quaternary  rocks.  Each  of 
these  epochs  must  have  embraced  an  immense  lapse  of  time, 
since  it  has  radically  exhausted  .the  generation  both  of  animals 
and  plants  which  was  peculiar  to  it.  Some  idea  may  be  formed 
of  the  extreme  slowness  with  which  organic  creatures  modify 
their  character,  when  we  take  into  consideration  that  our  con- 
temporary fauna,  that  is  to  say,  the  collection  of  animals  of  every 
country  which  belong  to  the  geological  period  in  which  we  exist, 
has  undergone  little,  if  any,  alteration  during  the  thousands  of 
years  that  it  has  been  in  being. 

Is  it  possible  for  us  to  date  the  appearance  of  the  human  race 
in  those  prodigiously  remote  epochs  which  correspond  with  the 
primitive,  the  transition,  or  the  secondary  rocks  ?  Evidently  no  ! 
Is  it  possible,  indeed,  to  fix  this  date  in  the  epoch  of  the  tertiary 
rocks  ?  Some  geologists  have  fancied  that  they  could  find  traces 
of  the  presence  of  man  in  these  tertiary  rocks  (the  miocene  and 
pliocene).  But  this  is  an  opinion  in  which  we,  at  least,  cannot 
make  up  our  minds  to  agree. 

In  1863,  M.  Desnoyers  found  in  the  upper  strata  of  the  tertiary 
beds  (pliocene)  at  Saint-Prest,  in  the  department  of  Eure,  certain 
bones  belonging  to  various  extinct  animal  species  ;  among  others 
those  of  an  elephant  (Elephas  meridionalis],  an  animal  which  did 
not  form  a  part  of  the  quaternary  fauna.  On  most  of  these 
bones  he  ascertained  the  existence  of  cuts,  or  notches,  which,  in 
his  opinion,  must  have  been  produced  by  flint  implements.  These 
indications,  according  to  M.  Desnoyers,  are  signs  of  the  existence 
of  man  in  the  tertiary  epoch. 


INTRODUCTION.  21 

This  opinion,  however,  Sir  Charles  Lyell  hesitates  to  accept. 
Moreover,  we  could  hardly  depend  upon  an  accident  so  insignifi- 
cant as  that  of  a  few  cuts  or  notches  made  upon  a  bone  in  order 
to  establish  a  fact  so  important  as  that  of  the  high  antiquity  of 
man.  We  must  also  state  that  it  is  a  matter  of  question  whether 
the  beds  which  contained  these  notched  bones  really  belonged  to 
the  tertiary  group. 

The  beds  which  correspond  to  the  quaternary  epoch  are,  there- 
fore, those  in  which  we  find  unexceptionable  evidence  of  the 
existence  of  man.  Consequently,  in  the  quaternary  epoch  which 
preceded  the  existing  geological  period,  we  must  place  the  date 
of  the  first  appearance  of  mankind  upon  the  earth. 

If  the  purpose  is  entertained  of  discussing,  with  any  degree  of 
certainty,  the  history  of  the  earliest  days  of  the  human  race — a 
subject  which  as  yet  is  a  difficult  one — it  is  requisite  that  the  long 
interval  should  be  divided  into  a  certain  number  of  periods. 
The  science  of  primitive  man  is  one  so  recently  entered  upon, 
that  those  authors  who  have  written  upon  the  point  can  hardly 
be  said  to  have  properly  discussed  and  agreed  upon  a  rational 
scheme  of  classification.  We  shall,  in  this  work,  adopt  the 
classification  proposed  by  M.  Edouard  Lartet,  which,  too,  has 
been  adopted  in  that  portion  of  the  museum  of  Saint-Germain 
which  is  devoted  to  pre-historic  antiquities.  Following  this 
course,  we  shall  divide  the  history  of  primitive  mankind  into  two 
great  periods  : 

ist.  The  Stone  Age; 

2nd.  The  Metal  Age. 

These  two  principal  periods  must  also  be  subdivided  in  the  fol- 
lowing mode.  The  "  Stone  Age  "  will  embrace  three  epochs  : 

1st.  The  epoch  of  extinct  animals  (or  of  the  great  cave-bear 
and  the  mammoth). 

2nd.  The  epoch  of  migrated  existing  animals  (or  the  reindeer 
epoch). 

3rd.  The  epoch  of  domesticated  existing  animals  (or  the 
polished-stone  epoch). 

The  "  Metal  Age  "  may  also  be  divided  into  two  periods  : 

ist.  The  Bronze  Epoch  ; 

2nd.  The  Iron  Epoch. 


22  INTRODUCTION. 

The  following  synoptical  table  will  perhaps  bring  more  clearly 
before  the  eyes  of  our  readers  this  mode  of  classification,  which 
has,  at  least,  the  merit  of  enabling  us  to  make  a  clear  and  simple 
statement  of  the  very  incongruous  facts  which  make  up  the 
history  of  primitive  man  : 

1st.  Epoch  of  extinct  animals  (or  of  the  great  bear  and  mam- 
moth). 

2nd.  Epoch  of  migrated  existing  animals  (or  the  reindeer 
epoch). 

3rd.  Epoch  of  domesticated  existing  animals  (or  the  polished- 
stone  epoch). 

THE  METAL  AGE.    }  Ist     The  Bronze  Epoch. 
2nd.  The  Iron  Epoch. 


THE  STONE  AGE. 


THE  STONE  AGE. 


I. 

THE  EPOCH  OF  EXTINCT  SPECIES   OF  ANIMALS;    OR,    OF   THE 
GREAT  SEAR  AND  MAMMOTH. 


CHAPTER  I. 

The  earliest  Men — The  type  of  Man  in  the  Epoch  of  Animals  of  Extinct  Species — 
Origin  of  Man — Refutation  of  the  Theory  which  derives  the  Human  Species  from 
the  Ape. 

MAN  must  have  lived  during  the  time  in  which  the  last  repre-^ 
sentatives  of  the  ancient  animal  creation — the  mammoth,  the 
great  bear,  the  cave-hyaena,  the  Rhinoceros  tichorldmis,  &c. — were 
still  in  existence.  It  is  this  earliest  period  of  man's  history  which 
we  are  now  about  to  enter  upon. 

We  have  no  knowledge  of  a  precise  nature  with  regard  to  man  \ 
at  the  period  of  his  first  appearance  on  the  globe.  How  did  he 
appear  upon  the  earth,  and  in  what  spot  can  we  mark  out  the 
earliest  traces  of  him  ?  Did  he  first  come  into  being  in  that  part 
of  the  world  which  we  now  call  Europe,  or  is  it  the  fact  that  he 
made  his  way  to  this  quarter  of  our  hemisphere,  having  first  seen 
the  light  on  the  great  plateaux  of  Central  Asia  ? 
j  This  latter  opinion  is  the  one  generally  accepted.  In  the  work 
which  will  follow  the  present  volume  we  shall  see,  when  speaking 
of  the  various  races  of  manj  that  the  majority  of  naturalists  admit 
nowadays  one  common  centre  of  creation  for  all  mankind.  Man, 
no  doubt,  first  came  into  being  on  the  great  plateaux  of  Central 
Asia,  and  thence  was  distributed  over  all  the  various  habitable 
portions  of  our  globe.  The  action  of  climate,  and  the  influences 
of  the  locality  which  he  inhabited  have,  therefore,  determined 
the  formation  of  the  different  races — white,  black,  yellow,  and 
red — which  now  exist,  with  all  their  infinite  subdivisions. 

But  there  is  another  question  which  arises,  to  which  it  is  neces- 
sary to  give  an  immediate  answer,  for  it  has  been  and  is  incessantly 
agitated  with  a  degree  of  vehemence  which  may  be  explained  by 
the  nature  of  the  discussion  being  of  so  profoundly  personal  a 


26  THE  STONE  AGE. 

character  as  regards  all  of  us  :  Was  man  created  by  God  complete 
in  all  parts,  and  is  the  human  type  independent  of  the  type  of  the 
animals  which  existed  before  him  ?  Or,  on  the  contrary,  are  we 
compelled  to  admit  that  man,  by  insensible  transformations,  and 
gradual  improvements  and  developments,  is  derived  jfrom  some 
other  animal  species,  and  particularly  that  of  the  ape  ? 

This  latter  opinion  was  maintained  at  the  commencement  of  the 
present  century  by  the  French  naturalist,  de  Lamarck,  who  laid 
down  his  views  very  plainly  in  his  work,  entitled,  "  Philosophic 
Zoologique."  The  same  theory  has  again  been  taken  up  in  our 
own  time,  and  has  been  developed,  with  no  small  supply  of  facts 
on  which  it  might  appear  to  be  based,  by  a  number  of  scientific 
men,  among  whom  we  may  mention  Professor  Carl  Vogt  in 
Switzerland,  and  Professor  Huxley  in  England. 

We  strongly  repudiate  any  doctrine  of  this  kind.  In  endeavour- 
ing to  establish  the  fact  that  man  is  nothing  more  than  a  developed 
and  improved  ape,  an  orang-outang  or  a  gorilla,  somewhat  elevated 
in  dignity,  the  arguments  are  confined  to  an  appeal  to  anatomical 
considerations.  The  skull  of  the  ape  is  compared  with  that  of 
primitive  man,  and  certain  characteristics  of  analogy,  more  or  less 
real,  being  found  to  exist  between  the  two  bony  cases,  the  conclu- 
sion has  been  arrived  at  that  there  has  been  a  gradual  blending 
between  the  type  of  the  ape  and  that  of  man. 

We  may  observe,  in  the  first  place,  that  these  analogies  have  been 
very  much  exaggerated,  and  that  they  fail  to  stand  their  ground  in 
the  face  of  a  thorough  examination  of  the  facts.  Only  look  at  the 
skulls  which  have  been  found  in  the  tombs  belonging  to  the  Stone 
Age,  the  so-called  Borreby  skull  for  instance — examine  the  human 
jaw-bone  from  Moulin-Quignon,  the  Meilen  skull,  &c.,  and  you  will 
be  surprised  to  see  that  they  differ  very  little  in  appearance  from 
the  skulls  of  existing  man.  One  would  really  imagine,  from  what 
is  said  by  the  partisans  of  "Lamarck's  theory,  that  primitive  man 
possessed  the  projecting  jaw  of  the  ape,  or  at  least  that  of  the  negro. 
We  are  astonished,  therefore,  when  we  ascertain  that,  on  the  con- 
trary, the  skull  of  the  man  of  the  Stone  Age  is  almost  entirely 
similar  in  appearance  to  those  of  the  existing  Caucasian  species. 
Special  study  is,  indeed,  required  in  order  to  distinguish  one  from 
the  other. 


EPOCH  OF  EXTINCT  ANIMALS. 


27 


;If  we  place  side  by  side  the  skull  of  a  man  belonging  to  the 
Sferie  Age,  and  the  skulls  of  the  principal  apes  of  large  size, 
these  dissimilarities  cannot  fail  to  be  obvious.  No  other  elements 
of  comparison,  beyond  merely  looking  at  them,  seem  to  be 
requisite  to  enable  us  to  refute  the  doctrine  of  this  debased  origin 
of  mankind. 

The  figure  annexed  represents  the  skull  of  a  man  belonging  to 
the  Stone  Age,  found  in  Denmark  ;  to  this  skull,  which  is  known 
by  the  name  of  the  Borreby  skull,  we  shall  have  to  allude  again 
in  the  course  of  the  present  work :  Fig.  3  represents  the  skull  of  a 


Fig.  2. — Skull  of  a  Man  belonging  to  the  Stone  Age  (the  Borreby  Skiilt). 

gorilla;  Fig.  4  that  of  an  orang-outang;  Fig.  5  that  of  the  Cynoce- 
pliahts  ape  ;  Fig.  6  that  of  the  Macacus.  Place  the  representation 
of  the  skull  found  in  Denmark  in  juxtaposition  with  these  ill- 
favoured  animal  masks,  and  then  let  the  reader  draw  his  own 
inference,  without  pre-occupying  his  mind  with  the  allegations  of 
certain  anatomists  imbued  with  contrary  ideas. 

Finding  themselves  beaten  as  regards  the  skulls,  the  advocates 
of  transmutation  next  appeal  to  the  bones.  With  this  aim  they 
exhibit  to  us  certain  similarities  of  arrangement  existing  between 


28  THE  STONE  AGE. 

the  skeleton  of  the  ape  and  that  of  primitive  man.  Such,  for 
instance,  is  the  longitudinal  ridge  which  exists  on  the  thigh-bone, 
which  is  as  prominent  in  primitive  man  as  in  the  ape.  Such,  also, 
is  the  fibula,  which  is  very  stout  in  primitive  man,  just  as  in  the 
ape,  but  is  rather  slender  in  the  man  of  the  present  period. 


Fig.  3.— Skull  of  Gorilla. 


When  we  are  fully  aware  how  the  form  of  the  skeleton  is 
modified  by  the  kind  of  life  which  is  led,  in  men  just  as  in  animals, 
we  cannot  be  astonished  at  finding  that  certain  organs  assume  a 


Fig.  4. — Skull  of  the  Orang-Outang. 

much  higher  development  in  those  individuals  who  put  them  to 
frequent  and  violent  use,  than  in  others  who  leave  these  same 
organs  in  a  state  of  comparative  repose. 


EPOCH  OF  EXTINCT  ANIMALS.  29 

;_If  it  be  a  fact  that  the  man  of  the  epoch  of  the  great  bear  and 
the  mammoth  had  a  more  robust  leg  and  a  more  largely  developed 
thigh-bone  than  most  of  the  races  of  existing  man,  the  reason 
simply  is,  that  his  savage  life,  which  was  spent  in  the  midst  of  the 
wild  beasts  of  the  forest,  compelled  him  to  make  violent  exertions, 
which  increased  the  size  of  these  portions  of  his  body./ 


Fig.  5. — Skull  of  the  Cynocephalus  Ape. 

Thus  it  is  found  that  great  walkers  have  a  bulky  calf,  and  per- 
sons leading  a  sedentary  life  have  slender  legs.  These  variations 
in  the  structure  of  the  skeleton  are  owing,  therefore,  to  nothing 
but  a  difference  in  the  mode  of  life.^ 

Why  is  it,  however,  that  the  skeleton  is  the  only  point  taken 
into  consideration  when  analogies  are  sought  for  between  man 


Fig.  6.— Skull  of  the  Macacus  Baboon. 

and  any  species  of  animal  ?  If  equal  investigation  were  given 
to  other  organs,  we  shouldT  arrive  at  a  conclusion  which  would 
prove  how  unreasonable  comparisons  of  this  kind  are.  In  fact, 
if  man  possesses  the  osseous  structure  of  the  ape,  he  has  also  the 
anatomical  structure  of  many  other  animals,  as  far  as  regards 


30  THE  STONE  AGE. 

several  organs.  Are  not  the  viscera  of  the  digestive  system  the 
same,  and  are  they  not  organised  on  the  same  plan  in  man  as  in 
the  carnivorous  animals  ?  As  the  result  of  this,  would  you  say 
that  man  is  derived  from  the  tiger,  that  he  is  nothing  but  an  im- 
proved and  developed  lion,  a  cat  transmuted  into  a  man  ?  We 
may,  however,  just  as  plausibly  draw  this  inference,  unless  we 
content  ourselves  with  devoting  our  attention  to  the  skeleton 
alone,  which  seems,  indeed,  to  be  the  only  part  of  the  individual  in 
which  we  are  to  interest  ourselves,  for  what  reason  we  know  not. 

But,  in  point  of  fact,  this  kind  of  anatomy  is  pitiable.  Is  there 
nothing  in  man  but  bones  ?  Do  the  skeleton  and  the  viscera 
make  up  the  entire  sum  of  the  human  being  ?  What  will  you  say, 
then,  ye  blind  rhetoricians,  about  the  faculty  of  intelligence  as 
manifested  in  the  gift  of  speech  ?  Intelligence  and  speech,  these 
are  really  the  attributes  which  constitute  man  ;  these  are  the 
qualities  which  make  him  the  most  complete  being  in  creation, 
and  the  most  privileged  of  God's  creatures.  Show  me  an  ape  who 
can  speak,  and  then  I  will  agree  with  you  in  recognising  it  as  a 
fact  that  man  is  nothing  but  an  improved  ape !  Show  me  an  ape 
who  can  make  flint  hatchets  and  arrow-heads,  who  can  light  a  fire 
and  cook  his  food,  who,  in  short,  can  act  like  an  intelligent  crea- 
ture— then,  and  then  only,  I  am  ready  to  confess  that  I  am 
nothing  more  than  an  orang-outang  revised  and  corrected. 

It  is  not,  however,  our  desire  to  speak  of  a  question  which  has 
been  the  subject  of  so  much  controversy  as  that  of  the  anatomical 
resemblance  between  the  ape  and  the  man  without  thoroughly 
entering  into  it ;  we  have,  indeed,  no  wish  to  shun  the  discussion 
of  the  point.  _Qn  the  present  occasion,  we  shall  appeal  to  the 
opinion  of  a  savant  perfectly  qualified  in  such  matters;  we  allude 
to  M.  de  Quatrefages,  Professor  of  Anthropology  in  the  Museum 
of  Natural  History  at  Paris^J 

M.  de  Quatrefages,  in  his  work  entitled  "Rapport  sur  le  Progres 
de  lAnthropologie,"  published  in  1868,  has  entered  rather  fully 
into  the  question  whether  man  is  descended  from  the  ape  or  not. 
He  has  summed  up  the  contents  of  a  multitude  of  contemporary 
works  on  this  subject,  and  has  laid  down  his  opinion — the  perfect 
impossibility,  in  an  anatomical  point  of  view,  of  this  strange  and 
repugnant  genealogy.  / 


EPOCH  OF  EXTINCT  ANIMALS.  31 

The  following  extract  from  his  work  will  be  sufficient  to  make 
our  readers  acquainted  with  the  ideas  of  the  learned  Professor 
of  Anthropology  with  regard  to  the  question  which  we  are  now 
considering  : 

"  Man  and  apes  in  general,"  says  M.  de  Quatrefages,  "  present 
a  most  striking  contrast — a  contrast  on  which  Vicq-d'Azyr,  Law- 
rence, and  M.  Serres  have  dwelt  in  detail  for  some  considerable 
time  past.  The  former  is  a  walking  animal,  who  walks  upon  his 
hind  legs  ;  all  apes  are  climbing  animals.  The  whole  of  the  loco- 
motive system  in  the  two  groups  bears  the  stamp  of  these  two  very 
different  intentions ;  the  two  types,  in  fact,  are  perfectly  distinct. 

"  The  very  remarkable  words  of  Duvernoy  on  the  '  Gorilla,' 
and  of  MM.  Gratiolet  and  Alix  on  the  '  Chimpanzee/  have  fully 
confirmed  this  result  as  regards  the  anthropomorphous  apes — a 
result  very  important,  from  whatever  point  of  view  it  is  looked 
at,  but  of  still  greater  value  to  any  one  who  wishes  to  apply 
logically  Darwin's  idea.  These  recent  investigations  prove,  in 
fact,  that  the  ape  type,  however  highly  it  may  be  developed, 
loses  nothing  of  its  fundamental  character,  and  remains  always 
perfectly  distinct  from  the  type  of  man  ;  the  latter,  therefore, 
cannot  have  taken  its  rise  from  the  former. 

"  Darwin's  doctrine,  when  rationally  adapted  to  the  fact  of  the 
appearance  of  man,  would  lead  us  to  the  following  results : 

"We  are  acquainted  with  a  large  number  of  terms  in  the  Simian 
series.  We  see  it  branching  out  into  secondary  series  all  leading 
up  to  anthropomorphous  apes,  which  are  not  members  of  one  and 
the  same  family,  but  corresponding  superior  terms  of  three  distinct 
families  (Gratiolet).  In  spite  of  the  secondary  modifications 
involved  by  the  developments  of  the  same  natural  qualities,  the 
orang,  the  gorilla,  and  the  chimpanzee  remain  none  the  less 
fundamentally  mere  apes  and  climbers  (Duvernoy,  Gratiolet,  and 
Alix).  Man,  consequently,  in  whom  everything  shows  that  he  is 
a  walker,  cannot  belong  to  any  one  of  these  series  ;  he  can  only 
be  the  higher  term  of  a  distinct  series,  the  other  representatives 
of  which  have  disappeared,  or  up  to  the  present  time  have  evaded 
our  search.  Man  and  the  anthropomorphous  apes  are  the  final 
terms  of  two  series,  which  commence  to  diverge  at  the  very  latest 
as  soon  as  the  lowest  of  the  apes  appear  upon  the  earth. 


32  THE  STONE  AGE. 

"This  is  really  the  way  in  which  a  true  disciple  of  Darwin 
must  reason,  even  if  he  solely  took  into  account  the  external 
morphological  characteristics  and  the  anatomical  characte- 
ristics which  are  the  expression  of  the  former  in  the  adult 
animal. 

"  Will  it  be  said  that  when  the  degree  of  organisation  mani- 
fested in  the  anthropomorphous  apes  had  been  once  arrived  at, 
the  organism  underwent  a  new  impulse  and  became  adapted  for 
walking  ?  This  would  be,  in  fact,  adding  a  fresh  hypothesis,  and 
its  promoters  would  not  be  in  a  position  to  appeal  to  the  organised 
gradation  presented  by  the  quadrumanous  order  as  a  whole  on 
which  stress  is  laid  as  leading  to  the  conclusion  against  which  I 
am  contending  :  they  would  be  completely  outside  Darwin's 
theory,  on  which  these  opinions  claim  to  be  based. 

"  Without  going  beyond  these  purely  morphological  considera- 
tions, we  may  place  side  by  side,  for  the  sake  of  comparison,  as 
was  done  by  M.  Pruner-Bey,  the  most  striking  general  charac- 
teristics in  man  and  in  the  anthropomorphous  apes.  As  the 
result,  we  ascertain  this  general  fact  —  that  there  exists  'an 
inverse  order  of  the  final  term  of  development  in  the  sensitive 
and  vegetative  apparatus,  in  the  systems  of  locomotion  and 
reproduction'  (Pruner-Bey). 

"  In  addition  to  this,  this  inverse  order  is  equally  exhibited  in 
the  series  of  phenomena  of  individual  development. 

"  M.  Pruner-Bey  has  shown  that  this  is  the  case  with  a  portion 
of  the  permanent  teeth.  M.  Welker,  in  his  curious  studies  of 
the  sphenoidal  angle  of  Virchow,  arrived  at  a  similar  result.  He 
demonstrated  that  the  modifications  of  the  base  of  the  skull,  that 
is,  of  a  portion  of  the  skeleton  which  stands  in  the  most  intimate 
relation  to  the  brain,  take  place  inversely  in  the  man  and  ape. 
This  angle  diminishes  from  his  birth  in  man,  but,  on  the  contrary, 
in  the  ape  it  becomes  more  and  more  obtuse,  so  as  sometimes  to 
become  entirely  extinct. 

"  But  there  is  also  another  fact  which  is  of  a  still  more  im- 
portant character :  it  is  that  this  inverse  course  of  development 
has  been  ascertained  to  exist  even  in  the  brain  itself.  This  fact, 
which  was  pointed  out  by  Gratiolet,  and  dwelt  upon  by  him 
on  various  occasions,  has  never  been  contested  either  at  the 


EPOCH  OF  EXTINCT  ANIMALS.  33 

Socitte  d' Anthropologic  or  elsewhere,  and  possesses  an  importance 
and  significance  which  may  be  readily  comprehended. 

"  In  man  and  the  anthropomorphous  ape,  when  in  an  adult  state, 
there  exists  in  the  mode  of  arrangement  of  the  cerebral  folds  a 
certain  similarity  on  which  much  stress  has  been  laid  ;  but  this 
resemblance  has  been,  to  some  extent,  a  source  of  error,  for  the 
result  is  attained  by  an  inverse  course  of  action.  In  the  ape,  the 
temporo-sphenoidal  convolutions,  which  form  the  middle  lobe, 
make  their  appearance,  and  are  completed,  before  the  anterior 
convolutions  which  form  the  frontal  lobe.  In  man,  on  the 
contrary,  the  frontal  convolutions  are  the  first  to  appear,  and 
those  of  the  middle  lobe  are  subsequently  developed. 

"It  is  evident  that  when  two  organised  beings  follow  an  inverse 
course  in  their  growth,  the  more  highly  developed  of  the  two 
cannot  have  descended  from  the  other  by  means  of  evolution. 

Li.'  Embryology  next  adds  its  evidence  to  that  of  anatomy  and 
morphology,  to  show  how  much  in  error  they  are  who  have 
fancied  that  Darwin's  ideas  would  afford  them  the  means  of 
maintaining  the  simial  origin  of  man/) 

"  In  the  face  of  all  these  facts,  it  maybe  easily  understood  that 
anthropologists,  however  little  in  harmony  they  may  sometimes 
be  on  other  points,  are  agreed  on  this,  and  have  equally  been  led 
to  the  conclusion  that  there  is  nothing  that  permits  us  to  look  at 
the  brain  of  the  ape  as  the  brain  of  man  smitten  with  an  arrest 
of  development,  or,  on  the  other  hand,  the  brain  of  man  as  a 
development  of  that  of  the  ape  (Gratiolet)  ;  that  the  study  of 
animal  organism  in  general,  and  that  of  the  extremities  in  parti- 
cular, reveals,  in  addition  to  a  general  plan,  certain  differences  in 
shape  and  arrangement  which  specify  two  altogether  special  and 
distinct  adaptations,  and  are  incompatible  with  the  idea  of  any 
filiation  (Gratiolet  and  Alix) ;  that  in  their  course  of  improve- 
ment and  development,  apes  do  not  tend  to  become  allied  to 
man,  and  conversely  the  human  type,  when  in  a  course  of 
degradation,  does  not  tend  to  become  allied  to  the  ape  (Bert)  ; 
finally,  that  no  possible  point  of  transition  can  exist  between 
man  and  the  ape,  unless  under  the  condition  of  inverting  the  laws 
of  development  (Pruner-Bey),  &c. 

"  What,  we  may  ask,  is  brought  forward  by  the  partisans  of  the 


34  THE  STONE  AGE. 

simial  origin  of  man  in  opposition  to  these  general  facts,  which 
here  I  must  confine  myself  to  merely  pointing  out,  and  to  the 
multitude  of  details  of  which  these  are  only  the  abstract  ? 

"  I  have  done  my  best  to  seek  out  the  proofs  alleged,  but  I 
everywhere  meet  with  nothing  but  the  same  kind  of  argument — 
exaggerations  of  morphological  similarities  which  no  one  denies ; 
inferences  drawn  from  a  few  exceptional  facts  which  are  then 
generalised  upon,  or  from  a  few  coincidences  in  which  the  relations 
of  cause  and  effect  are  a  matter  of  supposition  ;  lastly,  an  appeal 
to  possibilities  from  which  conclusions  of  a  more  or  less  affirma- 
tive character  are  drawn. 

"  We  will  quote  a  few  instances  of  this  mode  of  reasoning. 

"  ist.  The  bony  portion  of  the  hand  of  man  and  of  that  of 
certain  anthropomorphous  apes  present  marked  similarities. 
Would  it  not  therefore  have  been  possible  for  an  almost  imper- 
ceptible modification  to  have  ultimately  led  to  identity  ? 

"  MM.  Gratiolet  and  Alix  reply  to  this  in  the  negative  ;  for  the 
muscular  system  of  the  thumb  establishes  a  profound  difference, 
and  testifies  to  an  adaptation  to  very  different  uses. 

"  2nd.  It  is  only  in  man  and  the  anthropomorphous  apes  that 
the  articulation  of  the  shoulder  is  so  arranged  as  to  allow  of  rotatory 
movements.  Have  we  not  here  an  unmistakable  resemblance  ? 

"  The  above-named  anatomists  again  reply  in  the  negative;  for 
even  if  we  only  take  the  bones  into  account,  we  at  once  see  that 
the  movements  could  not  be  the  same  ;  but  when  we  come  to  the 
muscular  system,  we  find  decisive  differences  again  testifying  to 
certain  special  adaptations. 

"These  rejoinders  are  correct,  for  when  locomotion  is  the  matter 
in  question,  it  is  evident  that  due  consideration  must  be  paid  to 
the  muscles,  which  are  the  active  agents  in  that  function  at  least 
as  much  as  the  bones,  which  only  serve  as  points  of  attachment 
and  are  only  passive. 

"  3rd.  In  some  of  the  races  of  man,  the  arch  of  the  skull,  in- 
stead of  presenting  a  uniform  curve  in  the  transverse  direction, 
bends  a  little  towards  the  top  of  the  two  sides,  and  rises  towards 
the  median  line  (New  Caledonians,  Australians,  &c.).  It  is  asked 
if  this  is  not  a  preliminary  step  towards  the  bony  crests  which 
rise  in  this  region  in  some  of  the  anthropomorphous  apes  ? 


EPOCH  OF  EXTINCT  ANIMALS.  35 

"  Again  we  reply  in  the  negative ;  for,  in  the  latter,  the  bony 
crests  arise  from  the  walls  of  the  skull,  and  do  not  form  any  part 
of  the  arch. 

^4th.  Is  it  not  very  remarkable  that  we  find  the  orang  to  be 
brachycephalous,  just  like  the  Malay,  whose  country  it  inhabits, 
and  that  the  gorilla  and  chimpanzee  are  dolichocephalous,  like 
the  negro  ?  Is  not  this  fact  a  reason  for  our  regarding  the  former 
animal  as  the  ancestor  of  the  Malays,  and  the  latter  of  the 
African  nations  ? 

"  Even  if  the  facts  brought  forward  were  correct,  the  inference 
which  is  drawn  from  them  would  be  far  from  satisfactory.  But 
the  coincidence  which  is  appealed  to  does  not  exist.  In  point  of 
fact,  the  orang,  which  is  essentially  a  native  of  Borneo,  lives 
among  the  Dyaks  and  not  among  the  Malays  ;  now  the  Dyaks  are 
rather  dolichocephalous  than  brachycephalous.  With  respect  to 
gorillas  being  dolichocephalous,  they  cannot  at  least  be  so  gene- 
rally ;  as  out  of  three  female  specimens  of  this  arje  which  were 
examined,  two  were  brachycephalous  (Pruner-Bey),  / 
-V*5th.  The  brains  of  microcephalous  individuals  present  amix- 
ttrre~"bf  human  and  simial  characteristics,  and  point  to  some  inter- 
mediate conformation,  which  was  normal  at  some  anterior  epoch, 
but  at  the  present  time  is  only  realised  by  an  arrest  of  develop- 
ment and  a  fact  of  atavism. 

(^Gratiolet's  investigations  of  the  brain  of  the  ape,  normal  man, 
and  small-brained  individuals,!  have  shown  that  the  similarities 
pointed  out  are  purely  fallaciou|^  People  have  thought  that  they 
could  detect  them,  simply  because  they  have  not  examined  closely 
enough.  In  the  last-named,  the  human  brain  is  simplified  ;  but 
this  causes  no  alteration  in  t^ie  initial  plan,  and  this  plan  is  not 
that  which  is  ascertained  to  exist  in  the  ape.  Thus  Gratiolet  has 
expressed  an  opinion  which  no  one  has  attempted  to  controvert : 
'  The  human  brain  differs  the  more  from  that  of  the  ape  the  less 
the  former  is  developed,  and  an  arrest  of  development  could  only 
exaggerate  this  natural  difference.  .  .  .  The  brains  of  microcepha- 
lous individuals,  although  often  less  voluminous  and  less  convo- 
luted than  those  of  the  anthropomorphous  apes,  do  not  on  this 
account  become  like  the  latter.  .  .  .  The  idiot,  however  low  he  may 
be  reduced,  is  not  a  beast ;  he  is  nothing  but  a  deteriorated  man/ 


36  THE  STONE  AGE. 

"  The  laws  of  the  development  of  the  brain  in  the  two  types, 
laws  which  I  mentioned  before,  explain  and  justify  this  language  ; 
and  the  laws  of  which  it  is  the  summary  are  a  formal  refutation  of 
the  comparison  which  some  have  attempted  to  make  between  the 
contracted  human  brain  and  the  animal  brain,  however  developed. 

"  6th.  The  excavations  which  have  been  made  in  intact  ancient 
beds  have  brought  to  light  skulls  of  ancient  races  of  man,  and 
these  skulls  present  characteristics  which  approximate  them  to 
the  skull  of  the  ape.  Does  not  this  pithecoid  stamp,  which  is  very 
striking  on  the  Neanderthal  skull  in  particular,  argue  a  transition 
from  one  type  to  another,  and  consequently  filiation  ? 

"  This  argument  is  perhaps  the  only  one  which  has  been 
brought  forward  with  any  degree  of  precision,  and  it  is  often 
recurred  to.  Is  it,  on  this  account,  more  demonstrative  ?  Let 
the  reader  judge  for  himself. 

"  We  may,  in  the  first  place,  remark  that  Sir  C.  Lyell  does  not 
venture  to  pronounce  affirmatively  as  to  the  high  antiquity  of  the 
human  remains  discovered  by  Dr.  Fuhlrott,  and  that  he  looked 
upon  them,  at  the  most,  as  contemporary  with  the  Engis  skull,  in 
which  the  Caucasian  type  of  head  was  reproduced. 

"  Let  us,  however,  admit  that  the  Neanderthal  skull  belongs  to 
the  remote  antiquity  to  which  it  has  been  assigned  ;  what,  then, 
is  in  reality  the  significance  of  this  skull  ?  Is  it  actually  a  link 
between  the  head  of  the  man  and  that  of  the  ape  ?  And  does  it 
not  find  some  analogy  in  comparatively  modern  races  ? 

"  Many  writings  have  been  published  on  these  questions,  and,  as 
it  appears  to  me,  some  light  has  gradually  been  thrown  upon  the 
subject.  There  is  no  doubt  that  this  skull  is  really  remarkable 
for  the  enormous  size  of  its  superciliary  ridges,  the  length  and 
narrowness  of  the  bony  case,  the  slight  elevation  of  the  top  of 
the  skull.  But  these  features  are  found  to  be  much  less  excep- 
tional than  was  at  first  supposed,  in  default  of  any  means  of  insti- 
tuting a  just  comparison  ;  very  far,  indeed,  from  justifying  the 
approximation  which  some  have  endeavoured  to  make,  this  skull 
is,  in  all  its  characteristics,  essentially  human.  Mr.  Busk,  in 
England,  has  pointed  out  the  great  affinity  which  is  established, 
by  the  prominence  of  the  superciliary  ridges  and  the  depression 
of  the  upper  region,  between  certain  Danish  skulls  from  Borreby 


EPiCtf  *F  EXTINCT  ANfMALS.  37 

and  the  Neanderthal  skull.  Dr.  Barnard  Davis  has  described  the 
still  greater  similarities  existing  between  this  very  fossil  and  a 
skull  in  his  collection.  Gratiolet  forwarded  to  the  Museum  the 
skull  of  an  idiot  of  the  present  time,  which  was  almost  identical 
with  it  in  everything,  although  in  slighter  proportions,  &c. 

"  The  following  appears  to  me  to  be  decisive : 

"  In  spite  of  its  curious  characteristics,  the  Neanderthal  skull 
"none-the  less  belonged  to  an  individual,  who,  to  judge  by  other 
bones  which  have  been  found,  diverged  but  little  from  the  average 
type  of  the  present  Germanic  races,  and  by  no  means  approxi- 
ma£ed  to  that  of  the  ape. 

^Is  it  probable,  proceeding  even  on  the  class  of  ideas  which  I 
am  opposing,  that  in  a  being  in  a  state  of  transition  between 
man  and  the  anthropomorphous  apes,  the  body  would  have 
become  entirely  human  in  its  character,  whilst  the  head  pre- 
sented its  simial  peculiarities  ?  If  a  fact  like  this  is  admitted, 
-does  it  not  render  the  hypothesis  absolutely  worthless  ?} 

"Notwithstanding  all  the  discussion  to  which  tnese  curious 
remains  have  given  rise,  it  appears  to  me  impossible  to  look  upon 
them  in  any  other  light  than  as  the  remains  of  an  individuality, 
exceptional,  no  doubt,  but  clearly  belonging  to  the  human  species, 
and,  in  addition  to  this,  to  the  Celtic  race,  one  of  the  branches  of 
•our  Aryan  stock.  M.  Pruner-Bey  appears  to  me  to  have  placed 
this  fact  beyond  all  question  by  the  whole  mass  of  investigations 
which  he  has  published  on  this  subject.  The  most  convincing 
proofs  are  based  on  the  very  great  similarity  which  may  be  noticed 
in  a  Celtic  skull  taken  from  a  tumulus  in  Poitou  to  the  skull  which 
has  become  so  well  known,  and,  indeed,  so  celebrated,  owing  to 
the  writings  of  Dr.  Schaaffhausen.  This  similarity  is  not  merely 
external.  An  internal  cast  taken  from  one  skull  fits  perfectly 
into  the  interior  of  the  other.  It  was,  therefore,  the  brains  and 
not  merely  the  skulls  which  bore  a  resemblance  to  one  another. 
The  proof  appears  to  me  to  be  complete,  and,  with  the  learned 
author  of  this  work,  I  feel  no  hesitation  in  concluding  that  the 
Neanderthal  skull  is  one  of  Celtic  origin. 

"After  all,  neither  experience  nor  observation  have  as  yet 
furnished  us  with  the  slightest  data  with  regard  to  man  at  his 
earliest  origin.  Science,  therefore,  which  pretends  to  solidity  of 


38  THE  STONE  AGE. 

character,  must  put  this  problem  on  one  side  till  fresh  informa- 
tion is  obtained.  We  really  approach  nearer  to  the  truth  when 
we  confess  our  ignorance,  than  when  we  attempt  to  disguise  it 
either  to  ourselves  or  others. 

^  With  regard  to  the  simial  origin  of  man,  it  is  nothing  but  pure 
hypothesis,  or  rather  nothing  but  a  merejeu  cT esprit,  which  every- 
thing proves  utterly  baseless,  ai^d  in  favour  of  which  no  solid 
fact  has  as  yet  been  appealed  to^ 

fin  dealing  with  this  question  in  a  more  general  point  of  view, 
we  must  add  that  the  most  enlightened  science  declares  to  us  in 
unmistakable  accents  that  species  is  immutable,  and  that  no 
animal  species  can  be  derived  from  another  ;  they  may  change, 
but  all  bear  witness  to  an  independent  creation.  This  truth, 
which  has  been  developed  at  length  by  M.  de  Quatrefages  in  his 
numerous  works,  is  a  definite  and  scientific  judgment  which  must 
decide  this  question  as  far  as  regards  any  unprejudiced  minds. 


EPOCH  OF  EXTINCT  ANIMALS.  39 


CHAPTER   II. 

Man  in  the  condition  of  Savage  Life  during  the  Quaternary  Epoch — The  Glacial 
Period,  and  its  Ravages  on  the  Primitive  Inhabitants  of  the  Globe — Man  in  Conflict 
with  the  Animals  of  the  Quaternary  Epoch — The  Discovery  of  Fire — The  Weapons 
of  Primitive  Man — Varieties  of  Flint-hatchets — Manufacture  of  the  earliest  Pottery 
— Ornamental  objects  at  the  Epoch  of  the  Great  Bear  and  the  Mammoth. 

AFTER  this  dissertation,  which  was  necessary  to  confute  the  theory 
which  gives  such  a  degrading  explanation  of  our  origin,  we  must 
contemplate  man  at  the  period  when  he  was  first  placed  upon  the 
earth,  weak  and  helpless,  in  the  midst  of  the  inclement  and  wild 
nature  which  surrounded  him. 

However  much  our  pride  may  suffer  by  the  idea£;we  must  con- 
fess that,  at  the  earliest  period  of  his  existence,  man  could  have 
been  but  little  distinguished  from  the  brute.  Care  for  his  natural 
wants  must  have  absorbed  his  whole  being ;  all  his  efforts  must  have 
tended  to  one  sole  aim — that  of  insuring  his  daily  subsistence^  - 

At  first  his  only  food  must  have  been  fruits  and  roots  ;  for  he  had 
not  as  yet  invented  any  weapon  wherewith  to  destroy  wild  animals. 
If  he  succeeded  in  killing  any  creatures  of  small  size  he  devoured 
them  in  a  raw  state,  and  made  a  covering  of  their  skins  to  shelter 
himself  against  the  inclemency  of  the  weather.  His  pillow  was 
a  stone,  his  roof  was  the  shadow  of  a  wide-spreading  tree,  or  some 
dark  cavern,  which  also  served  as  a  refuge  against  wild  beasts. 

-For  how  many  ages  did  this  miserable  state  last  ?  No  one  can 
tell.  Man  is  an  improvable  being,  and  indefinite  progress  is  the 
law  of  his  existence.  Improvement  is  his  supreme  attribute  ;  and 
this  it  is  which  gives  him  the  pre-eminence  over  all  the  creatures 
which  surround  him.  But  how  wavering  must  have  been  his  first 
steps  in  advance,  and  how  many  efforts  must  have  been  given  to 
the  earliest  creation  of  his  mind  and  to  the  first  work  of  his  hands 
— doubtless  some  shapeless  attempt  in  which  we  nowadays, 


40  THE  STONE  AGE. 

perhaps,  should  have  some  difficulty  in  recognising  the  work  of 
any  intelligent  beingj^ 

Towards  the  commencement  of  the  quaternary  epoch,  a  great 
natural  phenomenon  took  place  in  Europe^)  Under  the  influence 
of  numerous  and  varied  causes,  which  up  to  the  present  time  have 
not  been  fully  recognised,  a  great  portion  of  Europe  became 
covered  with  ice,  on  the  one  hand,  making  its  way  from  the  poles 
down  to  the  most  southern  latitudes,  and  on  the  other,  descending 
into  the  plains  from  the  summits  of  the  highest  mountain  chains. 
Ice  and  ice-fields  assumed  a  most  considerable  extension.  As 
all  the  lower  parts  of  the  continent  were  covered  by  the  sea, 
there  were  only  a  few  plateaux  which  could  afford  a  refuge  to  man 
and  animals  flying  from  this  deadly  cold.  Such  was  the  Glacial 
period,  which  produced  the  annihilation  of  so  many  generations 
of  animals,  and  must  have  equally  affected  man  himself,  so  ill- 
defended  against  this  universal  and  sudden  winter. 

Man,  however,  was  enabled  to  resist  the  attacks  of  revolted 
nature.  Without  doubt,  in  this  unhappy  period,  he  must  have  made 
but  little  progress,  even  if  his  intellectual  development  \vere  not 
completely  stopped.  At  all  events  the  human  species  did  not  perish. 
The  glacial  period  came  to  an  end,  the  ice-fields  shrank  back  to 
their  original  limits,  and  Nature  reassumed  its  primitive  aspect^— 

When  the  ice  had  gradually  retired  into  the  more  northern 
latitudes,  and  had  become  confined  to  the  higher  summits,  a  new 
generation  of  animals — another  fauna,  as  naturalists  call  it — made 
its  appearance  on  the  globe.  This  group  of  animals,  which  had 
newly  come  into  being,  differed  much  from  those  that  had  dis- 
appeared in  the  glacial  cataclysm^/  Let  us  cast  an  inquiring 
glance  on  these  strange  and  now  extinct  creatures. 

First  we  have  the  mammoth  (Elcphas  primigcnius}  or  the 
woolly-haired  and  maned  elephant,  carcases  of  which  were  found, 
entire  and  in  good  preservation,  in  the  ice  on  the  coasts  of  Siberia. 
Next  comes  the  rhinoceros  with  a  complete  nasal  septum 
(Rhinoceros  tichorhinus],  likewise  clad  in  a  warm  and  soft  fur,  the 
nose  of  which  is  surmounted  with  a  remarkable  pair  of  horns. 
Then  follow  several  species  of  hippopotamus,  which  come  as  far 
north  as  the  rivers  of  England  and  Russia ;  a  bear  of  great  size 
inhabiting  caverns  (Ursus  spclceus),  and  presenting  a  projecting 


EPOCH  OF  EXTINCT  ANIMALS.  41 

forehead  and  a  large-sized  skull  ;  the  cave  lion  or  tiger  (Felts 
spd<zd),  which  much  surpassed  in  strength  the  same  animals  of  the 
existing  species  ;  various  kinds  of  hyaenas  (Hycena  spclcea),  much 
stronger  than  those  of  our  epoch  ;  the  bison  or  aurochs  (Biso 
europceus},  which  still  exists  in  Poland  ;  the  great  ox,  the  Urus 
of  the  ancients  (Bos  primigenius} ;  the  gigantic  Irish  elk  (Megaceros 
Jiibernicus],  the  horns  of  which  attained  to  surprising  dimensions. 
Other  animals  made  their  appearance  at  the  same  epoch,  but 
they  are  too  numerous  to  mention  ;  among  them  were  some  of  the 
Rodent  family.  Almost  all  these  species  are  now  extinct,  but 
man  certainly  existed  in  the  midst  of  them. 

The  mammoth,  elephant,  rhinoceros,  stag,  and  hippopotamus 
were  then  in  the  habit  of  roaming  over  Europe  in  immense  herds, 
just  as  some  of  these  animals  still  do  in  the  interior  of  Africa. 
These  animals  must  have  had  their  favourite  haunts — spots 
where  they  assembled  together  in  thousands  ;  or  else  it  would  be 
difficult  to  account  for  the  countless  numbers  of  bones  which  are 
found  accumulated  at  the  same  spot. 

Before  these  formidable  bands,  man  could  dream  of  nothing 
but  flight.  It  was  only  with  some  isolated  animal  that  he  could 
dare  to  engage  in  a  more  or  less  unequal  conflict.  Farther  on  in 
our  work,  we  shall  see  how  he  began  to  fabricate  some  rough 
weapons  with  a  view  of  attacking  his  mighty  enemies. 

JThe  first  important  step  which  man  made  in  the  path  of  pro- 
gress was  the  acquisition  of  fire.  In  all  probability,  man  came 
to  the  knowledge  of  it  by  accident,  either  by  meeting  with  some 
substance  which  had  been  set  on  fire  by  lightning  or  volcanic 
heat,  or  by  the  friction  ofpieces  of  wood  setting  a  light  to  some 
very  inflammable  matteiv"' 

In  order  to  obtain  fire,  man  of  the  quaternary  epoch  may  have 
employed  the  same  means  as  those  made  use  of  by  the  American 
aborigines,  at  the  time  when  Christopher  Columbus  first  fell 
in  with  them  on  the  shores  of  the  New  World — means  which 
savage  nations  existing  at  the  present  day  still  put  in  practice. 
He  rubbed  two  pieces  of  dry  wood  one  against  the  other,  or 
turned  round  and  round  with  great  rapidity  a  stick  sharpened  to 
a  point,  having  placed  the  end  of  it  in  a  hole  made  in  the  trunk 
of  a  very  dry  tree  (Fig.  7). 


42  THE  STONE  AGE. 

As  among  the  savages  of  the  present  day  we  find  certain  ele- 
mentary mechanisms  adapted  to  facilitate  the  production  of  fire, 
it  is  not  impossible  that  these  same  means  were  practised  at  an 
early  period  of  the  human  race.  It  would  take  a  considerable 
time  to  set  light  to  two  pieces  of  dry  wood  by  merely  rubbing 
them  against  one  another ;  but  if  a  bow  be  made  use  of,  that  is, 
the  cord  of  an  arc  fixed  firmly  on  a  handle,  so  as  to  give  a  rapid 
revolution  to  a  cylindrical  rod  of  wood  ending  in  a  point  which 
entered  into  a  small  hole  made  in  a  board,  the  board  may  be  set 
on  fire  in  a  few  minutes.  Such  a  mode  of  obtaining  fire  may 
have  been  made  use  of  by  the  men  who  lived  in  the  same  epoch 
with  the  mammoth  and  other  animals,  the  species  of  which  are 
now  extinct. 

The  first  rudiments  of  combustion  having  been  obtained,  so  as 
to  serve,  during  the  daytime,  for  the  purposes  of  warmth  and 
cooking  food,  and  during  the  night,  for  giving  light,  how  was  the 
fire  to  be  kept  up  ?  Wood  from  the  trees  that  grew  in  the  district, 
or  from  those  which  were  cast  up  by  the  currents  of  the  rivers  or 
sea  ;  inflammable  mineral  oils ;  resin  obtained  from  coniferous 
trees  ;  the  fat  and  grease  of  wild  animals ;  oils  extracted  from 
the  great  cetaceans — all  these  substances  must  have  assisted  in 
maintaining  combustion,  for  the  purposes  both  of  warmth  and  light. 
The  only  fuel  which  the  Esquimaux  of  the  present  day  have 
either  to  warm  their  huts  or  light  them  during  the  long  nights  of 
their  gloomy  climate,  is  the  oil  of  the  whale  and  seal,  which, 
burnt  in  a  lamp  with  a  short  wick,  serves  both  to  cook  their  food 
and  also  to  warm  and  illumine  their  huts. 

Even,  nowadays,  in  the  Black  Forest  (Duchy  of  Baden),  instead 
of  candles,  long  splinters  of  very  dry  beech  are  sometimes  made 
use  of,  which  are  fixed  in  a  horizontal  position  at  one  end  and 
lighted  at  the  other.  This  forms  an  economical  lamp,  which  is 
really  not  to  be  despised. 

We  have  also  heard  of  the  very  original  method  which  is  re- 
sorted to  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  Faroe  Isles  in  the  northern 
seas  of  Europe,  in  order  to  warm  and  light  up  their  huts.  This 
method  consists  in  taking  advantage  of  the  fat  and  greasy  con- 
dition of  the  young  Stormy  Petrel  (Mother  Carey's  Chicken),  so 
as  to  convert  its  body  into  a  regular  lamp.  All  that  is  necessary 


EPOCH  OF  EXTINCT  ANIMALS.  43 

is  to  draw  a  wick  through  its  body,  projecting  at  the  beak,  which 
when  lighted  causes  this  really  animal  candle  to  throw  out  an 
excellent  light  until  the  last  greasy  morsel  of  the  bird  is  con- 
sumed. 

This  bird  is  also  used  by  the  natives  of  the  isles  as  a  natural 
fuel  to  keep  up  their  fires  and  cook  other  birds. 

Whatever  may  have  been  the  means  which  were  made  use  of  by 
primitive  man  in  order  to  procure  fire,  either  the  simple  friction  of 
two  pieces  of  wood  one  against  the  other,  continued  for  a  long 
time,  the  bow,  or  merely  a  stick  turned  round  rapidly  by  the  action 
of  the  hand,  without  any  kind  of  mechanism— it  is  certain  that 
the  acquisition  of  fire  must  be  classed  amongst  the  most  beautiful 
and  valuable  discoveries  which  mankind  has  made)  Fire  must 
have  put  an  end  to  the  weariness  of  the  long  nigHts.  In  the  pre- 
sence of  fire,  the  darkness  of  the  holes  and  caverns  in  which  man 
made  his  first  retreat  must  have  vanished  away.  With  the  aid  of 
fire,  the  most  rigorous  climates  became  habitable,  and  the  damp 
which  impregnated  the  body  of  man  or  his  rough  garments,  made 
of  the  skin  of  the  bear  or  some  long-haired  ruminant,  could  be 
evaporated.  With  fire  near  them,  the  danger  arising  from  ferocious 
beasts  must  have  much  diminished ;  for  a  general  instinct  leads 
wild  animals  to  dread  the  light  and  the  heat  of  a  fire.  Buried, 
as  they  were,  in  the  midst  of  forests  infested  with  wild  beasts, 
primitive  men  might,  by  means  of  a  fire  kept  alight  during  the 
night,  sleep  in  peace  without  being  disturbed  by  the  attacks  of 
the  huge  wild  beasts  which  prowled  about  all  round  them. 
/Fire,  too,  gave  the  first  starting-point  to  man's  industry.  It 
afifblrded  means  to  the  earliest  inhabitants  of  the  earth  for 
felling  trees,  for  procuring  charcoal,  for  hardening  wood  for  the 
manufacture  of  their  rudimentary  implements,  and  for  baking 
their  primitive  pottery^ 

Thus,  as  soon  as  man  had  at  his  disposal  the  means  for  pro- 
ducing artificial  heat,  his  position  began  to  improve,  and  the 
kindly  flame  of  the  hearth  became  the  first  centre  round  which 
the  family  circle  was  constituted. 

Ere  long  man  felt  the  need  of  strengthening  his  natural  powers 
against  the  attacks  of  wild  beasts.  At  the  same  time  he  desired 
to  be  able  to  make  his  prey  some  of  the  more  peaceable  animals, 


44  THE  STONE  AGE. 

such  as  the  stag,  the  smaller  kinds  of  ruminants,  and  the  horse. 
Then  it  was  that  he  began  to  manufacture  weapons. 

He  had  remarked,  spread  about  the  surface  of  the  ground, 
certain  flints,  with  sharp  corners  and  cutting  edges.  These  he 
gathered  up,  and  by  the  means  of  other  stones  of  a  rather 
tougher  nature,  he  broke  off  from  them  pieces,  which  he  fashioned 
roughly  in  the  shape  of  a  hatchet  or  hammer.  He  fixed  these 
splinters  into  split  sticks  by  way  of  a  handle,  and  firmly  bound 
them  in  their  places  with  the  tendons  of  an  animal  or  the  strong 
stalks  of  some  dried  plant.  With  this  weapon  he  could,  if  he 
pleased,  strike  his  prey  at  a  distance. 

When  man  had  invented  the  bow  and  chipped  out  flint  arrow- 
heads, he  was  enabled  to  arrest  the  progress  of  the  swiftest 
animal  in  the  midst  of  his  flight. 

Since  the  time  when  the  investigations  with  regard  to  primitive 
man  have  been  set  on  foot  in  all  countries,  and  have  been  ener- 
getically prosecuted,  enormous  quantities  have  been  found  of 
these  chipped  flints,  arrow-heads,  and  various  stone  implements, 
which  archaeologists  designate  by  the  common  denomination  of 
hatchets,  in  default  of  being  able,  in  some  cases,  to  distinguish 
the  special  use  for  which  they  had  been  employed.  Before  going 
any  further,  it  will  be  necessary  to  enter  into  some  details  with 
regard  to  these  flint  implements — objects  which  are  altogether 
characteristic  of  the  earliest  ages  of  civilisation. 

For  a  long  time  past  chipped  stones  of  a  somewhat  similar 
character  have  been  met  with  here  and  there  in  several  countries, 
sometimes  on  the  surface  of,  and  sometimes  buried  deeply  in,  the 
ground  ;  but  no  one  understood  what  their  significance  was.  If 
the  common  people  ever  distinguished  them  from  ordinary  stones, 
they  attached  to  them  some  superstitious  belief.  Sometimes  they 
called  them  "thunder-stones,"  because  they  attributed  to  them  the 
power  of  preserving  from  lightning  those  who  were  in  possession 
of  them.  It  was  not  until  the  middle  of  the  present  century 
that  naturalists  and  archaeologists  began  to  comprehend  the  full 
advantage  which  might  be  derived  from  the  examination  of  these 
chipped  stones,  in  reconstructing  the  lineaments  of  the  earliest 
of  the  human  race,  and  in  penetrating,  up  to  a  certain  point,  into 
their  manners,  customs,  and  industry.  These  stone-hatchets  and 


EPOCH  OF  EXTINCT  ANIMALS.  45 

arrow-heads  are,  therefore,  very  plentiful  in  the  present  day  in 
collections  of  antiquities  and  cabinets  of  natural  history. 

Most  of  these  objects  which  are  found  in  Europe  are  made  of 
flint,  and  this  circumstance  may  be  easily  explained.  Flint  must 
have  been  preferred  as  a  material,  on  account  both  of  its  hardness 
and  its  mode  of  cleavage,  which  may  be  so  readily  adapted  to  the 
will  of  the  workman.  One  hard  blow,  skilfully  applied,  is  suffi- 
cient to  break  off,  by  the  mere  shock,  a  sharp-edged  flake  of  a 
blade-like  shape.  These  sharp-edged  blades  of  silex  might  serve 
as  knives.  Certainly  they  would  not  last  long  in  use,  for  they 
are  very  easily  notched  ;  but  primitive  men  must  have  been 
singularly  skilful  in  making  them. 

Although  the  shapes  of  these  stone  implements  are  very  varied, 
they  may  all  be  classed  under  a  certain  number  of  prevailing 
types  ;  and  these  types  are  to  be  found  in  very  different  countries. 
The  flint  hatchets  are  at  first  very  simple  although  irregular  in 
their  shape  ;  but  they  gradually  manifest  a  much  larger  amount 
of  talent  exhibited  in  their  manufacture,  and  a  better  judgment 
is  shown  in  adapting  them  to  the  special  uses  for  which  they  were 
intended.  The  progress  of  the  human  intellect  is  written  in 
ineffaceable  characters  on  these  tablets  of  stone,  which,  defended 
as  they  were  by  a  thick  layer  of  earth,  bid  defiance  to  the 
injuries  of  time. 

<tet  us  not  despise  these  first  and  feeble  efforts  of  our  primitive 
forefathers,  for  they  mark  the  date  of  the  starting-point  of  manu- 
factures and  the  arts>)  If  the  men  of  the  Stone  Age  had  not  per- 
severed in  their  efforts,  we,  their  descendants,  should  never  have 
possessed  either  our  palaces  or  our  masterpieces  of  painting  and 
sculpture.  As  Boucher  de  Perthes  says,  "  The  first  man  who  struck 
one  pebble  against  another  to  make  some  requisite  alteration  in 
its  form,  gave  the  first  blow  of  the  chisel  which  has  resulted  in 
producing  the  Minerva  and  all  the  sculpture  of  the  Parthenon." 

Archaeologists  who  have  devoted  their  energies  to  investigating 
the  earliest  monuments  of  human  industry,  have  found  it  necessary 
to  be  on  their  guard  against  certain  errors,  or  rather  wilful  decep- 
tions, which  might  readily  pervert  their  judgment  and  deprive 
their  discoveries  of  all  character  of  authenticity.  There  is,  in  fact, 
a  certain  class  of  persons  engaged  in  a  deceptive  manufacture  who 


46  THE  STONE  AGE. 

have  taken  a  delight  in  misleading  archaeologists  by  fabricating 
apocryphal  flint  and  stone  implements,  in  which  they  drive  a 
rather  lucrative  trade.  They  assert,  without  the  least  scruple,  the 
high  antiquity  of  their  productions,  which  they  sell  either  to  in- 
experienced amateurs,  who  are  pleased  to  put  them  in  their  col- 
lections duly  labelled  and  ticketed,  or — which  is  a  more  serious 
matter — to  workmen  who  are  engaged  in  making  excavations  in 
fossiliferous  beds.  These  workmen  hide  the  fictitious  specimens 
in  the  soil  they  are  digging,  using  every  requisite  precaution  so  as 
to  have  the  opportunity  of  subsequently  extracting  them  and 
fingering  a  reward  for  them  from  some  too  trusting  naturalist. 
These  imitations  are,  moreover,  so  cleverly  made,  that  it  some- 
times requires  well-practised  eyes  to  recognise  them  ;  but  they 
may  be  recognised  with  some  degree  of  facility  by  the  following 
characteristics  : — 

The  ancient  flints  present  a  glassy  surface  which  singularly 
contrasts  with  the  dull  appearance  of  the  fresh  cleavages.     They 


Fig.  8. — Dendrites  or  Crystallisations  found  on  the  surface  of  wrought  Flints. 

are  also  for  the  most  part  covered  with  a  whitish  coating  or 
patina,  which  is  nothing  but  a  thin  layer  of  carbonate  of  lime 
darkened  in  colour  by  the  action  of  time.  Lastly,  many  of  these 
flints  are  ornamented  with  branching  crystallisations,  called 
dendrites,  which  form  on  their  surface  very  delicate  designs  of  a 
dark  brown  ;  these  are  owing  to  the  combined  action  of  the 
oxides  of  iron  and  manganese  (Fig.  8). 

We  must  add  that  these  flint  implements  often  assume  the 
•colour  of  the  soil  in  which  they  have  been  buried  for  so  many 
centuries  ;  and  as  Mr.  Prestwich,  a  learned  English  geologist,  well 


EPOCH  OF  EXTINCT  ANIMALS. 


47 


remarks,  this  agreement  in  colour  indicates  that  they  have  remained 
a  very  considerable  time  in  the  stratum  which  contains  them. 

Among  the  stone  implements  of  primitive  ages,  some  are  found 
in  a  state  of  perfect  preservation,  which  clearly  bears  witness  to 
their  almost  unused  state;  others,  on  the  contrary,  are  worn, 
rounded,  and  blunted,  sometimes  because  they  have  done  good 
service  in  bygone  days,  and  sometimes  because  they  have  been 
many  times  rolled  over  and  rubbed  by  diluvial  waters,  the  action 
of  which  has  produced  this  result.  Some,  too,  are  met  with 
which  are  broken,  and  nothing  of  them  remains  but  mere  vestiges. 


Fig.  g. — Section  of  a  gravel  Quarry  at  Saint-Acheul,  which  contained  the  wrought  Flints  found  by 

Boucher  de  Perthes. 

In  a  general  way,  they  are  completely  covered  with  a  very  thick 
coating,  which  it  is  necessary  to  break  off  before  they  can  be  laid 
open  to  view. 

They  are  especially  found  under  the  soil  in  grottos  and  caves,  on 
which  we  shall  remark  further  in  some  detail,  and  they  are  almost 
always  mixed  up  with  the  bones  of  extinct  mammalian  species. 

Certain  districts  which  are  entirely  devoid  of  caves  contain, 
however,  considerable  deposits  of  these  stone  implements.  We 
may  mention  in  this  category  the  alluvial  quaternary  beds  of  the 
valley  of  the  Somme,  known  under  the  name  of  drift  beds,  which 


48  THE  STONE  AGE. 

were  worked  by  Boucher  de  Perthes  with  an  equal  amount  of 
perseverance  and  success. 

This  alluvium  was  composed  of  a  gravelly  deposit,  which  geo- 
logists refer  to  the  great  inundations  which,  during  the  epoch  of 
the  great  bear  and  the  mammoth,  gave  to  Europe,  by  hollowing 
out  its  valleys,  its  present  vertical  outline.  The  excavations  in 
the  sand  and  gravel  near  Amiens  and  Abbeville,  which  were 
directed  with  so  much  intelligence  by  Boucher  de  Perthes,  have 
been  the  means  of  exhuming  thousands  of  worked  flints,  affording 
unquestionable  testimony  of  the  existence  of  man  during  the 
quaternary  epoch. 

All  these  worked  flints  may  be  classed  under  some  of  the 
principal  types,  from  which  their  intended  use  may  be  approxi- 
mately conjectured. 


Fig.  10. — Hatchet  of  the  A  Imond-shaped  type  from  the  Valley  of  the  Somme. 

One  of  the  types  which  is  most  extensively  distributed,  especi- 
in  the  drift  beds  of  the  valley  of  the  Somme,  where  scarcely 
any  other  kind  is  found,  is  the  almond-shaped  type  (Fig.  10). 

The  instruments  of  this  kind  are  hatchets  of  an  oval  shape, 
more  or  less  elongated,  generally  flattened  on  both  sides,  but 
sometimes  only  on  one,  carefully  chipped  all  over  their  surface 
so  as  to  present  a  cutting  edge.  The  workmen  of  the  Somme 
give  them  the  graphic  name  of  cats  tongues. 

They  vary  much  in  size,  but  are  generally  about  six  inches  long 
by  three  wide,  although  some  are  met  with  which  are  much 
larger.  The  Pre-historic  Gallery  in  the  Universal  Exposition  of 


EPOCH  OF  EXTINCT  ANIMALS. 


49 


1867  contained  one  found  at  Saint-Acheul,  and  exhibited  by  M. 
Robert,  which  measured  eleven  inches  in  length  by  five  in  width. 
This  remarkable  specimen  is  represented  in  Fig.  1 1. 


Fig.  ii. — Flint  Hatchet  from  Saint-Acheul  of  the  so-called  A  Imond-shaped  type. 

Another  very  characteristic  form  is  that  which  is  called  the 
Moustier  type  (Fig.  12),  because  they  have  been  found  in  abund- 


Fig.  12.— Wrought  Flint  (Moustier  type). 


50  THE  STONE  AGE. 

ance  in  the  beds  in  the  locality  of  Moustier,  which  form  a  por- 
tion of  the  department  of  Dordogne.  This  name  is  applied  to 
the  pointed  flints  which  are  only  wrought  on  one  side,  the  other 
face  being  completely  plain. 

To  the  same  deposit  also  belongs  the  flint  scraper,  the  sharp 
edge  of  which  forms  the  arc  of  a  circle,  the  opposite  side  being 
of  some  considerable  thickness,  so  as  to  afford  a  grasp  to  the 
hand  of  the  operator. 


Fig.   13.— Flint  Scraper. 

Some  of  these  instruments  (Fig.  13)  are  finely  toothed  all 
along  their  sharp  edge ;  they  were  evidently  used  for  the  same 
purposes  as  our  saws. 

The  third  type  (Fig.  14)  is  that  of  knives.     They  are  thin  and 


Fig.  14. — Flint  Knife,  found  at  Menchecourt,  near  Abbeville. 

narrow  tongue-shaped  flakes,  cleft  off  from  the  lump  of  flint  at 
one  blow.  When  one  of  the  ends  is  chipped  to  a  point,  these 
knives  become  scratchers.  Sometimes  these  flints  are  found  to 
be  wrought  so  as  to  do  service  as  augers. 


EPOCH  OF  EXTINCT  ANIMALS.  51 

The  question  is  often  asked,  how  these  primitive  men  were 
able  to  manufacture  their  weapons,  implements,  and  utensils,  on 
"uniform  models,  without  the  help  of  metallic  hammers.  This 
idea  has,  indeed,  been  brought  forward  as  an  argument  against 
those  who  contend  for  the  existence  of  quaternary  man.  Mr. 
Evans,  an  English  geologist,  replied  most  successfully  to  this  ob- 
jection by  a  very  simple  experiment.  He  took  a  pebble  and 
•fixed  it  in  a  wooden  handle  ;  having  thus  manufactured  a  stone 
hammer,  he  made  use  of  it  to  chip  a  flint  little  by  little,  until  he 
had  succeeded  in  producing  an  oval  hatchet  similar  to  the  ancient 
one  which  he  had  before  him. 

The  flint-workers  who,  up  to  the  middle  of  the  present  century, 
prepared  gun-flints  for  the  army,  were  in  the  habit  of  splitting 


Fig.  15. — Flint  Core  or  Nucleus. 

the  stone  into  splinters.  But  they  made  use  of  steel  hammers 
to  cleave  the  flint,  whilst  primitive  man  had  nothing  better  at  his 
disposal  than  another  and  rather  harder  stone. 

Primitive  men  must  have  gone  to  work  in  somewhat  the  fol- 
lowing way  :  They  first  selected  flints,  which  they  brought  to  the 
shape  of  those  cores  or  nuclei  which  are  found  in  many  places  in 
company  with  finished  implements  ;  then,  by  means  of  another 
and  harder  stone  of  elongated  shape,  they  cleft  flakes  off  the  flint. 
These  flakes  were  used  for  making  knives,  scratchers,  spear  or 
arrow-heads,  hatchets,  tomahawks,  scrapers,  &c.  Some  amount 
of  skill  must  have  been  required  to  obtain  the  particular  shape 


52  THE  STONE  AGE. 

that  was  required  ;  but  constant  practice  in  this  work  exclusively 
must  have  rendered  the  task  comparatively  easy. 

How,  in  the  next  place,  were  these  clipped  flints  fitted  with 
handles,  so  as  to  make  hatchets,  poniards,  and  knives  ? 

Some  of  them  were  fixed  at  right  angles  between  the  two  split 
ends  of  a  stick  :  this  kind  of  weapon  must  have  somewhat  resem- 
bled our  present  hatchets.  Others,  of  an  oval  shape  and  circular 
edge,  might  have  been  fastened  transversely  into  a  handle,  so  as 
to  imitate  a  carpenter's  adze.  In  case  of  need,  merely  a  forked 
branch  or  a  piece  of  split  wood  might  serve  as  sheath  or  handle 
to  the  flint  blade.  Flints  might  also  have  been  fixed  as  double- 
edged  blades  by  means  of  holes  cut  in  pieces  of  wood,  to  which 
a  handle  was  afterwards  added. 

These  flint  flakes  might,  lastly,  be  fitted  into  a  handle  at  one 
end.  The  wide-backed  knives,  which  were  only  sharp  on  one  side, 
afforded  a  grasp  for  the  hand  without  further  trouble,  and  might 
dispense  with  a  handle.  The  small  flints  might  also  be  darted 
as  projectiles  by  the  help  of  a  branch  of  a  tree  forming  a  kind  of 
spring,  such  as  we  may  see  used  as  a  toy  by  children. 

The  mere  description  of  these  stone  hatchets,  fitted  on  to  pieces 
of  wood,  recall  to  our  mind  the  natural  weapons  used  by  some  of 
the  American  savages,  and  the  tribes  which  still  exist  in  a  state 
of  freedom  in  the  Isles  of  Oceania.  We  allude  to  the  tomahawk, 
a  name  which  we  so  often  meet  with  in  the  accounts  of  voyages 
round  the  world.  Among  those  savage  nations  who  have  not  as 
yet  bent  their  necks  beneath  the  yoke  of  civilisation,  we  might 
expect  to  find — and,  in  fact,  we  do  find — the  weapons  and  utensils 
which  were  peculiar  to  man  in  primitive  ages.  A  knowledge  of 
the  manners  and  customs  of  the  present  Australian  aborigines 
has  much  conduced  to  the  success  of  the  endeavours  to  recon- 
struct a  similar  system  of  manners  and  customs  in  respect  to 
man  of  the  quaternary  age. 

•  It  was  with  the  weapons  and  implements  that  we  have  just 
described  that  man,  at  the  epoch  of  the  great  bear  and  mammoth, 
was  able  to  repulse  the  attacks  of  the  ferocious  animals  which 
prowled  round  his  retreat  and  often  assailed  him  (Fig.  16). 

But  the  whole  life  of  primitive  man  was  not  summed  up  in  de- 
fending himself  against  ferocious  beasts,  and  in  attacking  them  in 


EPOCH  OF  EXTINCT  ANIMALS.  53 

the  chase.  Beyond  the  needs  which  were  imposed  upon  him  by 
conflict  and  hunting,  he  felt,  besides,  the  constant  necessity  of 
quenching  his  thirst.  Water  is  a  thing  in  constant  use  by  man, 
whether  he  be  civilised  or  savage.  The  fluid  nature  of  water  ren- 
ders it  difficult  to  convey  it  except  by  enclosing  it  in  bladders, 
leathern  bottles,  hollowed-out  stumps  of  trees,  plaited  bowls,  &c. 
Receptacles  of  this  kind  were  certain  ultimately  to  become  dirty 
and  unfit  for  the  preservation  of  water  ;  added  to  this  they  could 
not  endure  the  action  of  fire.  It  was  certainly  possible  to  hollow 
out  stone,  so  as  to  serve  as  a  receptacle  for  water ;  but  any  kind 
of  stone  which  was  soft  enough  to  be  scooped  out,  and  would  re- 
tain its  tenacity  after  this  operation,  is  very  rarely  met  with. 
Shells,  too,  might  be  used  to  hold  a  liquid ;  but  then  shells  are 
not  to  be  found  in  every  place.  It  was,  therefore,  necessary  to  re- 
solve the  problem — how  far  it  might  be  possible  to  make  vessels 
which  would  be  strong,  capable  of  holding  water,  and  able  to  stand 
the  heat  of  the  fire  without  breaking  or  warping.  What  was  re- 
quired was,  in  fact,  the  manufacture  of  pottery. 

The  potter's  art  may,  perhaps,  be  traced  back  to  the  most  re- 
mote epochs  of  manr  We  have  already  seen,  in  the  introduction 
to  this  work,  that,  in  1835,  M.  Joly  found  in  the  cave  of  Nabrigas 
(Lozere),  a  skull  of  the  great  bear  pierced  with  a  stone  arrow- 
head, and  that  by  the  side  of  this  skull  were  also  discovered 
fragments  of  pottery,  on  which  might  still  be  seen  the  imprint  of 
the  fingers  which  moulded  it.  Thus,  the  potter's  art  may  have 
already  been  exercised  in  the  earliest  period  which  we  can 
assign  to  the  development  of  mankind. 

Other  causes  also  might  lead  us  to  believe  that  man,  at  a  very 
early  period  of  his  existence,  succeeded  in  the  manufacture  of 
rough  pottery. 

The  clay  which  is  used  in  making  all  kinds  of  pottery,  from  the 
very  lowest  kitchen  utensil  up  to  the  most  precious  specimens  of 
porcelain,  may  be  said  to  exist  almost  everywhere.  By  soften- 
ing it  and  kneading  it  with  water,  it  may  be  moulded  into  vessels 
of  all  shapes.  By  mere  exposure  to  the  heat  of  the  sun,  these 
vessels  will  assume  a  certain  amount  of  cohesion  ;  for,  as  tradi- 
tion tells  us,  the  towers  and  palaces  of  ancient  Nineveh  were 
built  entirely  with  bricks  which  had  been  baked  in  the  sun. 


54  THE  STONE  AGE. 

Yet  the  idea  of  hardening  any  clayey  paste  by  means  of  the 
action  of  fire  is  so  very  simple,  that  we  are  not  of  opinion  that 
pottery  which  had  merely  been  baked  in  the  sun  was  ever  made 
use  of  to  any  great  extent,  even  among  primitive  man.  Mere 
chance,  or  the  most  casual  observation,  might  have  taught  our 
earliest  forefathers  that  a  morsel  of  clay  placed  near  a  fire- 
hearth  became  hardened  and  altogether  impenetrable  to  water, 
that  is,  that  it  formed  a  perfect  specimen  of  pottery.  Yet  the  artr. 
though  ancient,  has  not  been  universally  found  among  mankind. 

Ere  long,  experience  must  have  taught  men  certain  improve- 
ments in  the  manufacture  of  pottery.  Sand  was  added  to  the 
clay,  so  as  to  render  it  less  subject  to  "  flying  "  on  its  first  meet- 
ing the  heat  of  the  fire  ;  next,  dried  straw  was  mixed  with  the 
clay,  in  order  to  give  it  more  coherence. 

In  this  way  those  rough  vessels  were  produced,  which  were,  of 
course,  moulded  with  the  hand,  and  still  bear  the  imprints  of  the 


Fig.  18. — Fossil  Shells  used  as  Ornaments,  and  found  in  the  Grave  at  Amiens. 

workman's  fingers.  They  were  only  half-baked,  on  account  of 
the  slight  degree  of  heat  in  the  furnace  which  they  were  then 
obliged  to  make  use  of,  which  was  nothing  more  than  a  wood 
fire,  burning  in  the  open  air,  on  a  stone  hearth. 

From  these  data  we  give  a  representation  (Fig.  17)  of  the  work- 
shop of  the  earliest  potter. 

In  the  gravel  pits  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Amiens  we  meet 
with  small  globular  bodies  with  a  hole  through  the  middle,  which 
are,  indeed,  nothing  but  fossil  shells  found  in  the  white  chalk 
(Fig.  1 8).  It  is  probable  that  these  stony  beads  were  used  to 
adorn  the  men  contemporary  with  the  diluvial  period.  The 
natural  holes  which  existed  in  them  enabled  them  to  be  threaded 
as  bracelets  or  necklaces.  This,  at  least,  was  the  opinion  of  Dr. 
Rigollot ;  and  it  was  founded  on  the  fact  that  he  had  often  found 
small  heaps  of  these  delicate  little  balls  collected  together  in  the 
same  spot,  as  if  an  inundation  had  drifted  them  into  the  bed  of 
the  river  without  breaking  the  bond  which  held  them  together. 


EPOCH  OF  EXTINCT  ANIMALS.  55 

The  necklaces,  which  men  and  women  had  already  begun  to 
wear  during  the  epoch  of  the  great  bear  and  the  mammoth,  were 
the  first  outbreak  of  the  sentiment  of  adornment,  a  feeling  so 
natural  to  the  human  species.  The  way  in  which  these  neck- 
laces were  put  together  is,  however,  exactly  similar  to  that  which 
we  meet  with  during  the  present  day  among  savage  tribes — a 
thread  on  which  a  few  shells  were  strung,  which  was  passed 
round  the  neck. 

It  has  been  supposed,  from  another  series  of  wrought  flints 
found  at  Saint-Acheul  by  Boucher  de  Perthes,  that  the  men  of 
the  epoch  of  the  great  bear  and  mammoth  may  have  executed 
certain  rough  sketches  of  art-workmanship,  representing  either 
figures  or  symbols.  Boucher  de  Perthes  has,  in  fact,  found  flints 
which  he  considered  to  show  representations,  with  varying  degrees 
of  resemblance,  of  the  human  head  in  profile,  three-quarter  view, 
and  full  face ;  also  of  animals,  such  as  the  rhinoceros  and  the 
mammoth. 

There  are  many  other  flints,  evidently  wrought  by  the  hand  of 
man,  which  were  found  by  Boucher  de  Perthes  in  the  same  quater- 
nary deposits  ;  but  it  would  be  a  difficult  matter  to  decide  their 
intention  or  significance.  Some,  perhaps,  were  religious  symbols, 
emblems  of  authority,  &c.  The  features  which  enable  us  to 
recognise  the  work  of  man  in  these  works  of  antediluvian  art  are 
the  symmetry  of  shape  and  the  repetition  of  successive  strokes 
by  which  the  projecting  portions  are  removed,  the  cutting  edges 
sharpened,  or  the  holes  bored  out. 

The  natural  colour  of  all  the  wrought  flints  we  have  just  been 
considering,  which  brings  under  our  notice  the  weapons  and  uten- 
sils of  man  in  the  earliest  epoch  of  his  existence,  is  a  grey  which 
assumes  every  tint,  from  the  brightest  to  the  darkest ;  but  gene- 
rally speaking,  they  are  stained  and  coloured  according  to  the 
nature  of  the  soil  from  which  they  are  dug  out.  Argillaceous 
soils  colour  them  white  ;  ochreous  gravels  give  them  a  yellowish- 
brown  hue.  Some  are  white  on  one  side  and  brown  on  the 
other,  probably  from  having  lain  between  two  different  beds. 

This  patina  (to  use  the  established  term)  is  the  proof  of  their 
long-continued  repose  in  the  beds,  and  is,  so  to  speak,  the  stamp 
of  their  antiquity. 


56  THE  STONE  AGE. 


CHAPTER  III. 

The  Man  of  the  Great  Bear  and  Mammoth  Epoch  lived  in  Caverns — Bone  Caverns 
in  the  Quaternary  Rock  during  the  Great  Bear  and  Mammoth  Epoch — Mode  of 
Formation  of  these  Caverns — Their  Division  into  several  Classes — Implements  of 
Flint,  Bone,  and  Reindeer-horn  found  in  these  Caverns — The  Burial-place  at 
Aurignac — Its  probable  Age — Customs  which  it  reveals — Funeral  Banquets  during 
the  Great  Bear  and  Mammoth  Epoch. 

HAVING  given  a  description  of  the  weapons  and  working  imple- 
ments of  the  men  belonging  to  the  great  bear  and  mammoth 
epoch,  we  must  now  proceed  to  speak  of  their  habitations. 

Caverns  hollowed  out  in  the  depth  of  the  rocks  formed  the 
first  dwellings  of  man.     We  must,  therefore,  devote  some  degree 


Fig.  19. — Theoretical  Section  of  a  Vein  of  Clay  in  the  Carboniferous  Limestone,  before  the  hollowing 
out  of  Valleys  by  diluvial  Waters. 

of  attention  to  the  simple  and  wild  retreats  of  our  forefathers. 
As  the  objects  which  have  been  found  in  these  caverns  are  both 
numerous  and  varied  in  their  character,  they  not  only  throw  a 
vivid  light  on  the  manners  and  customs  of  primitive  man,  but 
also  decisively  prove  the  fact  of  his  being  contemporary  with 
mammals  of  species  now  extinct,  such  as  the  mammoth,  the 
great  bear,  and  the  Rkinocerus  tichorhinus. 

But  before  proceeding  any  further,  it  is  necessary  to  inquire  in 


EPOCH  OF  EXTINCT  ANIMALS. 


57 


what  way  these  caverns  could  have  been  formed,  in  which  we  find 
accumulated  so  many  relics  of  the  existence  of  primitive  man. 

M.  Desnoyers,  Librarian  of  the  Museum  of  Natural  History 
at  Paris,  is  of  opinion  that  these  caverns  are  crevices  of  the  same 
class  as  metalliferous  lodes,  only  instead  of  containing  metallic 
ores  they  must  have  been  originally  filled  by  the  deposits  of 
certain  thermal  springs. 

Fig.  19  represents,  according  to  M.  Desnoyers'  treatise  on 
caverns,  one  of  these  primordial  veins  in  the  carboniferous  lime- 
stone. At  the  time  of  the  diluvial  inundation  these  veins  were 
opened  by  the  impetuous  action  of  the  water.  When  thus  cleared 
out  and  brought  to  the  light  of  day,  they  assumed  the  aspect  of 
caves,  as  represented  in  Fig.  20. 


Fig.  20. — Theoretical  Section  of  the  same  Vein  of  Clay  converted  into  a  Cavern,  after  the  hollowing 
out  of  Valleys  by  diluvial  Waters. 

The  European  diluvial  inundation  was,  as  we  know,  posterior 
to  the  glacial  epoch. 

It  is  also  likely  that  caverns  were  sometimes  produced  by  the 
falling  in  of  portions  of  some  of  the  interior  strata,  or  that  they 
were  formerly  the  natural  and  subterranean  channels  of  certain 
watercourses  ;  many  instances  of  this  kind  being  now  known  in 
different  countries. 

We  must  also  add  that  it  is  not  probable  that  all  caverns 
originated  in  the  same  way ;  but  that  one  or  other  of  the  several 
causes  just  enumerated  must  have  contributed  to  their  formation. 

Under  the  general  denomination  of  caverns,  all  kinds  of  sub- 
terranean cavities  are  comprehended ;  but  it  will  be  as  well  to 
introduce  several  distinctions  in  this  respect.  There  are,  in  the 
first  place,  simple  clefts  or  crevices,  which  are  only  narrow  pits 


58  THE  STONE  AGE, 

¥ 

deviating  but  slightly  from  the  vertical.  Next  we  have  grottos 
(or  baumes,  as  they  are  called  in  the  south  of  France),  which 
generally  have  a  widely  opening  inlet,  and  are  but  of  small 
extent.  Lastly,  we  must  draw  a  distinction  between  these  and 
the  real  bone  caverns,  which  consist  of  a  series  of  chambers, 
separated  by  extremely  narrow  passages,  and  are  often  of  very 
considerable  dimensions.  Some  of  these  caverns  occupy  an 
extent  of  several  leagues  underground,  with  variations  of  level 
which  render  their  exploration  very  difficult.  They  are  generally 
very  inaccessible,  and  it  is  almost  always  necessary  to  ply  the 
pickaxe  in  order  to  clear  a  way  from  one  chamber  to  another. 

In  most  of  these  grottos  and  caverns  the  ground  and  sides  are 
covered  with  calcareous  deposits,  known  by  the  name  of  stalactite 
and  stalagmite,  which  sometimes  meet  one  another,  forming 
columns  and  pillars  which  confer  on  some  of  these  subterranean 
halls  an  elegance  replete  with  a  kind  of  mysterious  charm. 

These  deposits  are  caused  by  the  infiltrated  water  charged 
with  carbonate  of  lime,  which,  oozing  drop  by  drop  through  the 
interstices  of  the  rock,  slowly  discharge  the  carbonic  acid  which 
held  the  carbonate  of  lime  in  solution,  and  the  salts  gradually 
precipitating  from  the  crystalline  or  amorphous  deposits  which 
constitute  these  natural  columns. 

The  calcareous  deposits  which  spread  over  the  ground  of  the 
caverns  are  called  stalagmite,  and  the  name  of  stalactite  is  given 
to  those  which  hang  down  from  the  roof,  forming  pendants, 
natural  decorations,  and  ornaments  as  of  alabaster  or  marble, 
producing  sometimes  the  most  magnificent  effects. 

Under  the  stalagmite  the  largest  number  of  animal  bones  have 
been  found.  This  crust,  which  has  been  to  them  a  preservatory 
grave,  is  so  thick  and  hard  that  a  pickaxe  is  required  in  order  to 
break  it.  Thanks  to  the  protecting  cover,  the  bones  have  been 
sheltered  from  all  the  various  causes  of  decomposition  and 
destruction.  The  limestone  formed  a  kind  of  cement  which, 
uniting  clay,  mud,  sand,  flint,  bones  of  men  and  animals,  weapons 
and  utensils  into  a  compact  mass,  has  preserved  them  for  the 
study  and  consideration  of  scientific  men  in  our  own  days. 

The  soil  called  bone-earth  is,  in  fact,  found  under  the  crystalline 
bed  which  covers  the  ground  of  the  caverns. 


EPOCH  OF  EXTINCT  ANIMALS. 


59 


Fig.  21,  which  represents  a  section  of  the  cave  of  Galeinreuth, 
in  Bavaria,  will  enable  us  clearly  to  understand  the  position 
occupied  by  the  bones  in  most  of  these  caverns. 

Bone-earth  consists  of  a  reddish  or  yellowish  clay,  often  mixed 
with  pebbles,  which  seem  to  have  come  from  some  distant  beds, 
for  they  cannot  be  attributed  to  the  adjacent  rocks.  This  stratum 
varies  considerably  in  depth  ;  in  some  spots  it  is  very  thin,  in 
others  it  rises  almost  to  the  top  of  the  cavern,  to  a  height  of 
forty  or  fifty  feet.  But  in  this  case  it  is,  in  reality,  composed  of 


Fig.  21. — The  Cave  of  Galeinreuth,  in  Bavaria. 

several  strata  belonging  to  different  ages,  and  explorers  ought  to 
note  with  much  attention  the  exact  depth  of  any  of  the  organic 
remains  found  in  their  mass. 

There  are,  however,  in  several  bone  caverns  certain  peculia- 
rities which  demand  a  special  explanation.  Caves  often  contain 
large  heaps  of  bones,  situated  at  heights  which  would  have 
been  absolutely  inaccessible  to  the  animals  which  lived  in  these 
places.  How,  then,  was  it  possible  that  these  bones  could  have 
found  their  way  to  such  an  elevated  position  ?  It  is  also  a  very 
strange  fact,  that  no  cavern  has  ever  produced  an  entire  skeleton 


60  THE  STONE  AGE. 

or  even  a  whole  limb  of  the  skeleton  of  a  man,  and  scarcely  of 
any  animal  whatever.  The  bones,  in  fact,  not  only  lie  in  con- 
fusion and  utter  disorder,  but,  up  to  the  present  time,  it  has  been 
impossible  to  find  all  the  bones  which  in  times  past  formed  an 
individual.  It  must,  therefore,  be  admitted,  that  the  accumula- 
tion of  bones  and  human  remains  in  most  of  the  caves  are  owing 
to  other  causes  than  the  residence  of  man  and  wild  animals  in 
these  dark  retreats. 

It  is  supposed,  therefore,  that  the  bones  in  question  were 
deposited  in  these  hollows  by  the  rushing  in  of  the  currents  of 
diluvial  water,  which  had  drifted  them  along  in  their  course.  A 
fact  which  renders  this  hypothesis  likely  is  that  drift-pebbles  are 
constantly  found  in  close  proximity  to  these  bones.  Now  these 
pebbles  come  from  localities  at  considerable  distances  from  the 
cavern  ;  often,  indeed,  terrestrial  and  fluviatile  shells  accompany 
these  bones.  It  may  sometimes  be  remarked  that  the  femurs 
and  tibias  of  large  mammals  have  their  points  rubbed  off,  and 
the  smallest  bones  are  reduced  to  rounded  fragments.  These 
are  all  evident  indications  that  these  bones  had  been  carried  along 
by  rapid  currents  of  water,  which  swept  away  everything  in  their 
course ;  or,  in  other  words,  by  the  current  of  the  waters  of  the 
deluge  which  signalised  the  quaternary  epoch. 

During  this  period  of  the  existence  of  primitive  man,  all  these 
caverns  were  not  applied  to  the  same  purpose.  Some  were  the 
dens  of  wild  beasts,  others  formed  the  habitations  of  man,  and 
others  again  were  used  as  burial-places. 

There  is  no  difficulty  in  the  idea  that  dens  of  wild  beasts  might 
very  readily  be  occupied  by  man,  after  he  had  killed  or  driven  out 
the  fierce  inhabitants ;  no  discovery,  however,  has  as  yet  confirmed 
this  supposition.  It  can  hardly  be  doubted  that  primitive  man 
seldom  dared  to  take  up  his  abode  in  dens  which  had  been,  for 
some  time,  the  refuge  of  any  of  the  formidable  carnivora  ;  if  he 
did,  it  was  only  after  having  assured  himself  that  these  retreats 
had  been  altogether  abandoned  by  their  terrible  inhabitants. 

We  shall  now  proceed  to  consider  these  three  classes  of  caverns. 

Caves  which,  during  the  quaternary  epoch,  have  served  as  dens 
for  wild  animals,  are  very  numerous.  Experienced  savants  are 
enabled  to  recognise  them  by  various  indications.  The  bones 
they  contain  are  never  fractured ;  but  it  may  be  seen  that  they 


EPOCH  OF  EXTINCT  ANIMALS.  61 

have  been  gnawed  by  carnivorous  animals,  as  they  still  bear  the 
marks  of  their  teeth.  Into  these  retreats  the  cave-lion  (Felis 
spel<za]  and  the  hyaena  (Hycena  spelcsa)  were  accustomed  to  drag 
their  prey,  in  order  there  to  tear  it  to  pieces  and  devour  it,  or 
divide  it  into  portions  for  their  young  ones.  In  fact,  in  these 
caverns,  excrements  of  the  hyaena  mixed  with  small  and  undigested 
bones  are  often  found.  The  cave-bear  retired  into  the  same  re- 
treats, but  he  probably  only  came  there  to  pass  the  period  of  his 
hibernal  sleep.  Lastly,  the  same  dens  no  doubt  offered  a  refuge 
to  sick  or  dying  animals,  who  resorted  thither  in  order  to  expire 
in  peace.  We  have  a  proof  of  this  in  the  traces  of  wounds  and 
caries  on  some  of  the  bones  of  animals  found  by  Schmerling  in  the 
caverns  of  the  Meuse  ;  also  in  the  skull  of  a  hyaena,  the  median 
ridge  of  which  had  been  bitten  and  appeared  to  be  half  healed. 

Those  caverns  which  formed  a  shelter  for  primitive  man  are, 
like  the  preceding  ones,  to  be  recognised  by  a  mere  inspection  of 
the  bones  contained  in  them.  The  long  bones  of  the  ox,  horse, 
stag,  rhinoceros,  and  other  quadrupeds  which  formed  the  food  of 
man  during  the  quaternary  epoch,  are  always  split ;  and  they  are 
all  broken  in  the  same  way,  that  is,  lengthwise.  The  only  cause  for 
their  having  been  split  in  this  manner  must  have  been  the  desire  of 
extracting  the  marrow  for  the  purpose  of  eating.  Such  a  mode  of 
breaking  them  would  never  have  been  practised  by  any  animal. 

This  apparently  trivial  circumstance  is,  however,  of  the  highest 
importance.  In  fact,  it  leads  to  the  following  conclusion  :  "That 
man,  having  eaten  large  mammals  of  species  now  extinct,  must 
have  been  contemporary  with  these  species." 

We  shall  now  proceed  to  examine  the  caverns  which  were  used 
as  burial-places  for  man. 

To  M.  Edouard  Lartet,  the  celebrated  palaeontologist,  the 
honour  must  be  ascribed  of  having  been  the  first  to  collect  any 
important  data  bearing  on  the  fact  that  caverns  were  used  for 
burial-places  by  the  primitive  man  of  the  great  bear  and  mam- 
moth epoch.  We  have  thus  been  led  to  discover  the  traces  of  a 
funeral  custom  belonging  to  the  man  of  these  remote  ages ;  we 
allude  to  the  funeral  banquet.  The  source  of  this  information  was 
the  discovery  of  a  pre-historic  burial-place  at  Aurignac  (Haute- 
Garonne),  of  which  we  have  given  an  account  in  the  Introduction 
to  this  work,  which,  however,  we  must  again  here  refer  to. 


62  THE  STONE  AGE. 

Near  the  town  of  Aurignac  rises  the  hill  of  Fajoles,  which  the 
inhabitants  of  the  country,  in  their  patois,  call  "mountagno  de  las 
Hajoles  "  (beech-tree  mountain),  a  circumstance  showing  that  it 
was  formerly  covered  with  beech-trees.  As  we  have  already 
stated,  in  the  Introduction  to  this  work,  it  was  on  one  of  the 
slopes  of  this  hill  that,  in  the  year  1842,  an  excavator,  named 
Bonnemaison,  discovered  a  great  slab  of  limestone  placed  in  a 
vertical  position  and  closing  up  an  arched  opening.  In  the  cave 
closed  up  by  this  slab  the  excavator  discovered  the  remains  of 
seventeen  human  skeletons  ! 

We  have  already  told  how  these  skeletons  were  removed  to 
the  village  cemetery,  and  thus,  unfortunately,  for  ever  lost  to  the 
researches  of  science. 

Eighteen  years  after,  in  1860,  M.  Lartet,  having  heard  of  the 


Fig.  22. — Section  of  the  Sepulchral  Cave  of  Aurignac. 

event,  repaired  to  the  spot,  accompanied  by  Bonnemaison ;  he 
quite  understood  how  it  had  happened  that,  during  a  long  course 
of  centuries,  the  cave  had  escaped  the  notice  of  the  inhabitants 
of  the  country.  The  entrance  to  it  was  concealed  by  masses  of 
earth  which,  having  been  brought  down  from  the  top  of  the  hill  by 
the  action  of  the  water,  had  accumulated  in  front  of  the  entrance, 
hiding  a  flat  terrace,  on  which  many  vestiges  of  pre-historic  times 
were  found.  As  no  disturbance  of  the  ground  had  taken  place  in 
this  spot  subsequent  to  the  date  of  the  burial,  this  talus  had  been 
sufficient  to  protect  the  traces  of  the  men  who  were  contemporary 
with  the  mammoth,  and  to  shield  their  relics  from  all  exterior  injury. 
Fig.  22,  taken  from  M.  Lartet's  article,  represents  a  vertical 
section  of  the  sepulchral  cave  at  Aurignac. 


EPOCH  OF  EXTINCT  ANIMALS.  63 

After  a  rapid  inspection  of  the  cave  and  its  surroundings,  M. 
Lartet  resolved  to  make  complete  and  methodical  excavations, 
aided  by  intelligent  workmen  labouring  under  his  superintend- 
ence ;  the  following  are  the  results  he  obtained. 

A  bed  of  "  made  ground  "  two  feet  thick  covered  the  ground 
of  the  cave.  In  this  were  found  some  human  remains  which  had 
escaped  the  first  investigations ;  also  bones  of  mammals  in  good 
preservation,  and  exhibiting  no  fractures  or  teeth-marks,  wrought 


Fig.  23. — Flint  Knife  found  in  the 
Sepulchral  Cave  of  Aurignac. 


Fig.  24. — Implement  made  of  Reindeer's  or  Stag's  Horn, 
found  in  the  Sepulchral  Cave  of  Aurignac. 


flints,  mostly  of  the  knife  type  (Fig.  23),  and  carved  reindeer 
horns,  among  which  there  was  an  instrument  carefully  tapered 
off  and  rounded,  but  deprived  of  its  point  (Fig.  24),  the  other 
end  being  bevelled  off,  probably  to  receive  a  handle. 

We  must  here  add,  that  at  the  time  of  his  discovery  Bonne- 
maison  collected,  from  the  midst  of  the  bones,  eighteen  small 


64 


THE  STONE  AGE. 


discs  which  were  pierced  in  the  centre,  and  doubtless  intended  to 
be  strung  together  in  a  necklace  or  bracelet.  These  discs,  which 
were  formed  of  a  white  compact  substance,  were  recognised  as 
sea-shells  of  a  Cardium  species. 


Fig.  25. —Series  of  perforated  Discs  of  the  Carditim  Shell  found  in  the  Sepulchral  Cave  of  Aurignac. 

The  cavern  of  Aurignac  was  a  burial-place  of  the  quaternary 
epoch,  for  M.  Lartet  found  in  it  a  quantity  of  the  bones  of  the 
cave-bear,  the  bison,  the  reindeer,  the  horse,  &c. 

In  Fig.  26  we  give  a  representation  of  a  fragment  of  the  lower 
jaw  of  a  great  bear  as  an  example  of  the  state  of  the  bones  found 
in  this  cavern. 


Fig.  26. — Fragment  of  the  Lower  Jaw  oi  a  Cave-Bear,  found  in  the  Sepulchral  Cave  of  Aurignac. 


The  perfect  state  of  preservation  of  these  bones  shows  that 
they  were  neither  broken  to  furnish  food  for  man  nor  torn  by 
carnivorous  animals,  particularly  by  hyaenas,  as  is  seen  in  a  great 
many  caverns.  We  must  therefore  conclude  from  this  peculiarity, 
that  the  stone  which  closed  the  entrance  to  the  cave  was  moved 
away  for  every  interment  and  carefully  put  back  into  its  place 
immediately  afterwards. 

In  order  to  explain  the  presence  of  so  many  foreign  objects  by 
the  side  of  the  human  skeletons — such  as  animals'  bones — imple- 
ments of  flint  and  reindeer's  horn — necklaces  or  bracelets — we 
must  admit  as  probable  that  a  funeral  custom  existed  among  the 


EPOCH  OF  EXTINCT  ANIMALS.  65 

men  of  the  great  bear  and  mammoth  epoch,  which  has  been 
preserved  in  subsequent  ages.  They  used  to  place  in  the  tomb, 
close  to  the  body,  the  weapons,  hunting  trophies,  and  ornaments 
of  all  sorts,  belonging  to  the  defunct.  This  custom  still  exists 
among  many  tribes  in  a  more  or  less  savage  state. 

In  front  of  the  cave  there  was,  as  we  have  already  said,  a  kind 
of  flat  spot  which  had  afterwards  become  covered  with  earth 
which  had  fallen  down  from  the  top  of  the  hill.  When  the  earth 
which  covered  this  flat  spot  was  cleared  away,  they  met  with 
another  deposit  containing  bones.  This  deposit  was  situated  on 
a  prolongation  of  the  ground  on  which  the  skeletons  were  placed 
in  the  interior  of  the  cavern.  Under  this  deposit  was  a  bed  of 


Fig.  27.  —Upper  Molar  of  a  Bison,  found  in  the  Ashes  of  the  Fire-hearth  of  the  Sepulchral 
Cave  of  Aurignac. 

ashes  and  charcoal,  five  to  seven  inches  thick.  This  was  therefore 
the  site  of  an  ancient  fire-hearth. 

In  other  words,  in  front  of  the  sepulchral  cave  there  was  a 
kind  of  terrace  upon  which,  after  the  interment  of  the  body  in 
the  cavern,  a  feast  called  \\\Q  funeral  banquet  was  held. 

In  this  bed,  situated  in  front  of  the  cavern,  an  immense  number 
of  the  most  interesting  relics  were  discovered — a  large  number 
of  the  teeth  and  broken  bones  of  herbivorous  animals  (Fig.  27) ; 
a  hundred  flint  knives ;  two  chipped  flints,  which  archaeologists 
believe  to  be  sling  projectiles ;  a  rounded  pebble  with  a  depression 
in  the  middle,  which,  according  to  Mr.  Steinhauer,  keeper  of  the 
Ethnographical  Museum  at  Copenhagen,  was  used  to  flake  off 


66 


THE  STONE  AGE. 


flint  knives ;  lastly,  a  large  quantity  of  implements  made  of 
reindeer's  horn,  which  exhibit  the  most  varied  shapes.  We  may 
mention,  for  instance,  the  arrow-heads  fashioned  very  simply, 
without  wings  or  barbs  (Fig.  28) ;  some  of  these  heads  appear  to 
have  been  subjected  to  the  action  of  fire,  as  if  they  had  been  left 
in  the  body  of  the  animal  during  the  process  of  cooking;  a 
bodkin  made  of  roebuck's  horn  (Fig.  29)  very  carefully  pointed, 
and  in  such  a  good  state  of  preservation  that  it  might  still  be 
used,  says  M.  Lartet,  to  perforate  the  skins  of  animals  before 


Fig.  28. — Arrow-head  made  of  Reindeer's  Horn,      Fig.  29. — Bodkin  made  of  Roebuck's  Horn,  found 
found  in  the  Sepulchral  Cave  of  Aurignac.  in  the  Sepulchral  Cave  of  Aurignac. 

sewing  them  ;  and  this  must,  in  fact,  have  been  its  use  ;  a  second 
instrument,  similar  to  the  preceding,  but  less  finely  pointed,  which 
M.  Lartet  is  inclined  to  consider  as  an  instrument  for  tattooing  ; 
some  thin  blades  of  various  sizes  which,  according  to  Steinhauer, 
much  resemble  the  reindeer-horn  polishers  still  used  by  the 
Laplanders  to  flatten  down  the  seams  of  their  coarse  skin- 
garments  ;  another  blade  accidentally  broken  at  both  ends,  one 
of  the  sides  of  which  is  perfectly  polished  and  shows  two  series 
of  transversal  lines  at  equal  distances  apart ;  the  lateral  edges  of 
this  blade  are  marked  with  deeper  notches  at  almost  regular  inter- 


EPOCH  OF  EXTINCT  ANIMALS.  67 

vals  (Fig.  30).  M.  Lartet  considers  that  these  lines  and  notches 
are  signs  of  numeration,  and  Mr.  Steinhauer  has  propounded  the 
idea  that  they  are  hunting-marks.  Both  hypotheses  are  possible, 
and  the  more  so  as  they  do  not  contradict  each  other. 

Among  the  bones,  some  were  partly  carbonised,  others  only 
scorched,  but  the  greater  number  had  not  been  subjected  at  all  to 
the  action  of  fire.  All  the  bones  having  medullary  hollows,  and 
commonly  called  marrow-bones,  were  broken  lengthwise,  a  certain 
indication  that  this  operation  had  been  effected  to  extract  the 
marrow,  and  that  these  bones  had  been  used  at  a  feast  carried  on 
according  to  the  manners  and  customs  of  that  epoch,  when  the 


Fig.  30. — Truncated  Blade  in  Reindeer's  Horn,  bearing  two  Series  of  transversal  Lines  and 
Notches,  probably  used  for  numeration. 

marrow  out  of  animal  bones  was  regarded  as  the  most  delicious 
viand — many  men  of  our  own  days  being  also  of  this  opinion. 

A  certain  number  of  these  bones  exhibited  shallow  cuts, 
showing  that  a  sharp  instrument  had  been  used  to  detach  the 
flesh  from  them.  Nearly  all  those  which  had  not  been  subjected 
to  the  action  of  fire  bore  the  mark  of  the  teeth  of  some  carnivo- 
rous animal.  This  animal  doubtless  came  to  gnaw  them  after 
man  had  taken  his  departure  from  the  spot.  This  carnivorous 
animal  could  have  been  none  other  than  the  hyaena,  as  is  shown 
by  the  excrements  left  in  the  place. 

The  ossiferous  mound  situated  immediately  above  the  fire- 
hearth  contained,  like  the  subjacent  ashes,  a  large  number  of  the 
bones  of  certain  herbivorous  animals. 


68  THE  STONE  AGE. 

The  discovery  of  the  fire-hearth  situated  in  front  of  the  cave 
of  Aurignac,  and  the  various  remains  which  were  found  inter- 
mingled underneath  it,  enable  us  to  form  some  idea  of  the  way 
in  which  funeral  ceremonies  took  place  among  the  men  of 
the  great  bear  epoch.  The  parents  and  friends  of  the  defunct 
accompanied  him  to  his  last  resting-place ;  after  which  they 
assembled  together  to  partake  of  a  feast  in  front  of  the  tomb 
soon  to  be  closed  on  his  remains.  Then  everyone  took  his 
departure,  leaving  the  scene  of  the  banquet  free  to  the  hyaenas 
which  came  to  devour  the  remains  of  the  meal. 

This  custom  of  funeral  feasts  is,  doubtless,  very  natural,  as  it 
has  been  handed  down  to  our  days  ;  though  it  now  chiefly  exists 
among  the  poorer  classes. 

In  accordance  with  the  preceding  data  we  here  represent  (Fig. 
31)  a  funeral feast  during  the  great  bear  and  mammoth  epoch. 

On  a  flat  space  situated  in  front  of  the  cave  destined  to  receive 
the  body  of  the  defunct,  some  men  covered  merely  with  bears' 
skins  with  the  hair  on  them  are  seated  round  a  fire,  taking  their 
part  in  the  funeral  feast.  The  flesh  of  the  great  bear  and 
mammoth  forms  the  menu  of  these  primitive  love-feasts.  In  the 
distance  may  be  seen  the  colossal  form  of  the  mammoth,  which 
forms  the  chief  dish  of  the  banquet.  The  manner  of  eating  is 
that  which  distinguishes  the  men  of  that  epoch ;  they  suck  the 
marrow  from  the  long  bones  which  have  previously  been  split 
lengthwise,  and  eat  the  flesh  of  the  animals  cooked  on  the  hearth. 
The  dead  body  is  left  at  the  entrance  of  the  cavern  :  the  primitive 
grave-stone  will  soon  close  on  it  for  ever. 

The  relics  found  in  the  interior  of  the  sepulchral  cave  of 
Aurignac  have  led  to  a  very  remarkable  inference,  which  shows 
how  interesting  and  fertile  are  the  studies  which  have  been  made 
by  naturalists  on  the  subject  of  the  antiquity  of  man.  The 
weapons,  the  trophies,  the  ornaments,  and  the  joints  of  meat 
placed  by  the  side  of  the  defunct — does  not  all  this  seem  to 
establish  the  fact  that  a  belief  in  a  future  life  existed  at  an 
extraordinarily  remote  epoch  ?  What  could  have  been  the  use 
of  these  provisions  for  travelling,  and  these  instruments  of  war, 
if  the  man  who  had  disappeared  from  this  world  was  not  to  live 
again  in  another  ?  The  great  and  supreme  truth — that  the 


EPOCH  OF  EXTINCT  ANIMALS.  69 

whole  being  of  man  does  not  die  with  his  material  body — is, 
therefore,  innate  in  the  human  heart ;  since  it  is  met  with  in  the 
most  remote  ages,  and  even  existed  in  the  mental  consciousness 
of  the  man  of  the  Stone  Age. 

An  instinct  of  art  also  appears  to  have  manifested  itself  in  the 
human  race  at  this  extremely  ancient  date.  Thus  one  of  the 
articles  picked  up  in  the  sepulchral  cave  of  Aurignac  consisted  of 
a  canine  tooth  of  a  young  cave-bear,  perforated  so  as  to  allow  of 
its  being  suspended  in  some  way  or  other.  Now  this  tooth  is  so 
carved  that  no  one  can  help  recognising  in  it  a  rough  outline 
of  some  animal  shape,  the  precise  nature  of  which  is  difficult  to 
determine,  although  it  may,  perhaps,  be  the  head  of  a  bird.  It 
was,  doubtless,  an  amulet  or  jewel  belonging  to  one  of  the  men 


Fig.  32.— Carved  and  perforated  Canine  Tooth  of  a  young  Cave-Bear. 

interred  in  the  cave,  and  was  buried  with  him  because  he  probably 
attached  a  great  value  to  it.  This  object,  therefore,  shows  us 
that  some  instincts  of  art  existed  in  the  men  who  hunted  the 
great  bear  and  mammoth. 

We  shall  close  this  account  of  the  valuable  discoveries  which 
were  made  in  the  sepulchral  cave  of  Aurignac,  by  giving  a  list  of 
the  species  of  mammals  the  bones  of  which  were  found  either  in 
the  interior  or  at  the  exterior  of  this  cavern.  The  first  six  species 
are  extinct ;  the  others  are  still  living  : — 

The  great  cave-bear  ( Ursus  spel&us) ;  the  mammoth  (Elephas 
primigenius ;  the  rhinoceros  (Rhinoceros  tichorhinus] ;  the  great 
cave-lion  (Felts  spelcsd}  ;  the  cave-hyaena  (Hycena  spelcsa]  ;  the 
gigantic  stag  (Megaceros  hibernicus] ;  the  bison,  the  reindeer,  the 


7o  THE  STONE  AGE. 

stag,  the  horse,  the  ass,  the  roe,  the  wild  boar,  the  fox,  the  wolfr 
the  wild  cat,  the  badger,  and  the  polecat. 

We  think  it  as  well  to  place  before  the  eyes  of  our  readers  the. 
exact  forms  of  the  heads  of  the  three  great  fossil  animals  found 
in  the  cave  of  Aurignac,  which  geologically  characterise  the  great 
bear  and  mammoth  epoch,  and  evidently  prove  that  man  was. 
contemporary  with  these  extinct  species.  Figs.  33,  34,  and  35. 


Fig.  33- — Head  of  a  Cave-Bear  found  in  the  Cave  of  Aurignac. 

represent  the  heads  of  the  cave-bear,  the  Rhinoceros  tichorhinus* 

and  the  megaceros  or  gigantic  stag  ;  they  are  taken  from  the  casts 
which  adorn  the  great  hall  of  the  Archaeological  and  Pre-historic 
Museum  at  Saint-Germain,  and  are  among  the  most  curious 
ornaments  of  this  remarkable  museum. 

Of  all  these  species,  the  fox  has  left  behind  him  the  largest  num- 


Fig.  34. — Head  of  the  Rhinoceros  tichorhimis  found  in  the  Cave  of  Aurignac. 

ber  of  remains.  This  carnivorous  animal  was  represented  by  about 
eighteen  to  twenty  individual  specimens.  Neither  the  mammoth,, 
great  cave-lion,  nor  wild  boar  appear  to  have  been  conveyed  into 
the  cave  in  an  entire  state  ;  for  two  or  three  molar  or  incisive  teeth 
are  the  only  remains  of  their  carcases  which  have  been  found. 
But  still  it  is  a  certain  fact  that  the  men  who  fed  on  the  Rhi~ 


EPOCH  OF  EXTINCT  ANIMALS.  71 

noceros  tichorhinus  buried  their  dead  in  this  cavern.  In  fact,  M. 
Lartet  asserts  that  the  bones  of  the  rhinoceros  had  been  split  by 
man  in  order  to  extract  the  marrow.  They  had  also  been  gnawed 
by  hyaenas,  which  would  not  have  been  the  case  if  these  bones  had 
not  been  thrown  away  and  left  on  the  ground  in  a  fresh  state. 

The  burial-place  of  Aurignac  dates  back  to  the  earliest  an- 
tiquity; that  is  to  say,  it  was  anterior  to  the  European  diluvial 
period.  Thus,  according  to  M.  Lartet,  the  great  cave-bear  was  the 
first  of  the  extinct  species  to  disappear ;  then  the  mammoth  and 
Rhinoceros  tichorhinus  were  lost  sight  of ;  still  later,  the  reindeer 
first,  and  then  the  bison,  migrated  to  the  northern  and  eastern 


Fig.  35. — Head  of  a  great  Stag  (Megaceros  hiberuicus)  found  in  the  Cave  of  Aurignac. 

regions  of  Europe.  Now,  the  diluvium — that  is  to  say,  the  beds 
formed  by  drifted  pebbles  and  originating  in  the  great  derange- 
ment caused  by  the  inundation  of  the  quaternary  epoch — does  not 
contain  any  traces  of  the  bones  of  the  cave-bear.  It,  therefore, 
belongs  to  an  epoch  of  the  Stone  Age  more  recent  than  the  cave 
of  Aurignac.*  All  this  goes  to  prove  that  this  sepulchral  cave, 
which  has  furnished  the  science  of  the  antiquity  of  man  with  so 
much  valuable  information,  belonged  to  the  great  bear  and 
mammoth  epoch,  which  preceded  the  diluvial  cataclysm. 

*  "  Nouvelles  Recherches  sur  la  Coexistence  de  1'Homme  et  des  grands  Mammi- 
feres  fossiles."     ("Annales  de  Sciences  naturelles,  Zoologie,"  vol.  xv.) 


CHAPTER  IV. 

Other  Caves  of  the  Epoch  of  the  Great  Bear  and  Mammoth — Type  of  the  Human 
Race  during  the  Epochs  of  the  Great  Bear  and  the  Reindeer — The  Skulls  from  the 
Caves  of  Engis  and  Neanderthal. 

WITH  regard  to  the  bone-caves,  which  have  furnished  us  with 
such  valuable  information  as  to  the  men  who  lived  in  the  epoch  of 
the  great  bear  and  the  mammoth,  we  have  laid  down  a  necessary 
distinction,  dividing  them  into  caves  which  served  as  dens  for 
wild  beasts,  those  which  have  afforded  a  refuge  for  man,  and  those 
which  were  used  as  his  burial-places.  In  order  to  complete  this 
subject,  and  set  forth  the  whole  of  the  discoveries  which  have 
been  made  by  science  on  this  interesting  point,  we  will  say  a  few 
words  as  to  the  principal  bone-caves  belonging  to  the  same  epoch 
which  have  been  studied  in  France,  England,  and  Belgium. 

We  will,  in  the  first  place,  call  attention  to  the  fact  that  these 
caverns,  taken  together,  embrace  a  very  long  period  of  time, 
perhaps  an  enormous  number  of  centuries,  and  that  hence  a  con- 
siderable difference  must  result  in  the  nature  of  the  remains  of 
human  industry  which  they  contain.  Some  certainly  manifest 
a  perceptible  superiority  over  others  in  an  industrial  point  of 
view ;  but  the  reason  is  that  they  belong  to  a  period  somewhat 
nearer  our  own,  although  still  forming  a  part  of  the  epoch  of  the 
great  bear  and  mammoth. 

We  shall  divide  the  caves  in  France  into  three  groups — those  of 
the  east,  those  of  the  west  and  centre,  and  those  of  the  south. 

In  the  first  group  we  shall  mention  the  Trou  de  la  Fontaine 
and  the  Cave  of  Sainte-Reine,  both  situated  in  the  environs  of 
Toul  (Meurthe).  These  two  caves  have  furnished  bones  of  bears, 
hyaenas,  and  the  rhinoceros,  along  with  the  products  of  human 
industry.  That  of  Sainte-Reine  has  been  explored  by  M.  Gudrin, 
and  especially  by  M.  Husson,  who  has  searched  it  with  much  care. 

The  second  group  includes  the  grottos  des  F&s,  of  Vergisson, 
Vallieres,  and  La  Chaise. 


EPOCH  OF  EXTINCT  ANIMALS.  73 

The  Grotte  des  Fees,  at  Arcy  (Yonne),  has  been  searched  and 
described  by  M.  de  Vibraye,  who  ascertained  the  existence  of  two 
distinct  beds,  the  upper  one  belonging  to  the  reindeer  epoch,  the 
lower  one  to  the  great  bear  epoch.  These  two  beds  were  divided 
from  each  other  by  matter  which  had  formed  a  part  of  the  roof 
of  the  cave,  and  had  fallen  down  on  the  earlier  deposit.  In  the 
more  ancient  bed  of  the  two,  M.  de  Vibraye  collected  fractured 
bones  of  the  bear  and  cave  hysena,  the  mammoth,  and  the 
Rhinoceros  tickorkinus,  all  intermingled  with  flints  wrought  by  the 
hand  of  man,  amongst  which  were  chips  of  hyaline  quartz  (rock 
crystal).  His  fellow  labourer,  M.  Franchet,  extracted  from  it  a 
human  atlas  (the  upper  part  of  the  vertebral  column). 

The  cave  of  Vergisson  (Saone-et-Loire),  explored  by  M.  de 
Ferry,  furnished  the  same  kind  of  bones  as  the  preceding  cave, 
and  also  bones  of  the  bison,  the  reindeer,  the  horse,  the  wolf,  and 
the  fox,  all  intermixed  with  wrought  flints  and  fragments  of  rough 
pottery.  The  presence  of  this  pottery  indicated  that  the  cave  of 
Vergisson  belonged  to  the  latter  period  of  the  great  bear  epoch. 

The  cave  of  Vallieres  (Loire-et-Cher)  was  worked  first  by  M. 
de  Vibraye,  and  subsequently  by  the  Abbe  Bourgeois.  There 
was  nothing  particular  to  be  remarked. 

The  cave  of  La  Chaise,  near  Vouthon  (Charente),  explored  by 
MM.  Bourgeois  and  Delaunay,  furnished  bones  of  the  cave-bear, 
the  rhinoceros,  and  the  reindeer,  flint  blades  and  scrapers,  a  bod- 
kin and  a  kind  of  hook  made  of  bone,  an  arrow-head  in  the  shape 
of  a  willow-leaf  likewise  of  bone,  a  bone  perforated  so  as  to  hang 
on  a  string,  and,  what  is  more  remarkable,  two  long  rods  of  rein- 
deer's horn,  tapering  at  one  end  and  bevelled  off  at  the  other,  on 
which  figures  of  animals  were  graven.  These  relics  betray  an 
artistic  feeling  of  a  decided  character  as  existing  in  the  men,  the 
traces  of  whom  are  found  in  this  cave. 

Among  the  caves  in  the  south  of  France,  we  must  specify  those 
of  Perigord,  those  of  Bas  Languedoc,  and  of  the  district  of  Foix 
(department  of  Ariege). 

The  caves  of  Perigord  have  all  been  explored  by  MM.  Lartet 
and  Christy,  who  have  also  given  learned  descriptions  of  them. 
We  will  mention  the  caves  of  the  Gorge  d'Enfer  and  Moustier,  in 
the  valley  of  the  Vezere,  and  that  of  Pey  de  FAzt,  all  three  situate 
in  the  department  of  Dordogne  (arrondissement  of  Sarlat). 


74  THE  STONE  AGE. 

The  two  caves  of  the  Gorge  d'Enferwere,  unfortunately, cleared 
out  in  1793,  in  order  to  utilise  the  deposits  of  saltpetre  which  they 
contained  in  the  manufacture  of  gunpowder.  They  have,  however, 
furnished  flints  chipped  into  the  shapes  of  scrapers,  daggers,  &c., 
a  small  pebble  of  white  quartz,  hollowed  out  on  one  side,  which 
had  probably  been  used  as  a  mortar,  and  instruments  of  bone  or 
reindeer's  horn,  three  of  which  showed  numerous  notches.  Bones 
of  the  great  bear  clearly  indicated  the  age  of  these  settlements. 

The  cave  of  Moustier,  situated  about  80  feet  above  the  Vezere, 
is  celebrated  for  the  great  number  and  characteristic  shapes  of 
its  stone  implements,  which  we  have  before  spoken  of.  Hatchets 
of  the  almond-shaped  type,  like  those  of  the  diluvium  of  Abbe- 
ville and  Saint-Acheul,  were  very  plentiful.  Bi-convex  spear- 
heads were  also  found,  of  very  careful  workmanship,  and 
instruments  which  might  be  held  in  the  hand,  some  of  them  of 
considerable  dimensions ;  but  no  pieces  of  bone  or  of  reindeer's 
horn  were  discovered  which  had  been  adapted  to  any  purpose 
whatever.  The  bones  were  those  of  the  great  bear  and  cave- 
hysena,  accompanied  by  separate  lamince  of  molars  of  the  mam- 
moth, the  use  of  which  it  is  impossible  to  explain.  Similar 
fragments  were  met  with  in  some  of  the  other  Perigord  settle- 
ments, and  M.  Lartet  also  found  some  at  Aurignac. 

Next  to  the  cave  of  Pey  de  F  Aze,  on  which  we  shall  not  dwell, 
come  the  caverns  of  Bas-Languedoc,  which  we  shall  only 
enumerate.  They  consist  of  the  caves  of  Pondres  and  Souvig- 
nargues  (Herault),  which  were  studied  in  1829  byM.  de  Christol, 
who  recognised,  from  the  data  he  derived  from  them,  the  co- 
existence of  man  and  the  great  extinct  mammals ;  also  those 
of  Pontil  and  La  Roque,  the  first  explored  by  M.  Paul  Gervais, 
the  second  by  M.  Boutin. 

We  shall  now  consider  the  caves  of  the  department  of  Ariege, 
some  of  which  furnish  objects  of  very  considerable  interest. 
They  consist  of  the  caves  of  Massat,  L/ierm,  and  BoiticJieta. 

Two  caves,  very  remarkable  on  account  of  their  extent,  have 
been  explored  by  M.  Fontan ;  they  are  situate  in  the  valley  of 
Massat,  which  contains  others  of  less  importance.  One  is  placed 
at  the  foot  of  a  limestone  mountain,  about  60  feet  above  the 
bottom  of  the  valley ;  the  opening  of  the  other  is  much  higher 
up  ;  only  the  latter  belongs  to  the  great  bear  epoch. 


EPOCH  OF  EXTINCT  ANIMALS.  75 

From  the  results  of  his  explorations,  M.  Fontan  is  of  opinion 
that  the  ground  in  them  has  been  greatly  altered  by  some  violent 
inundation  which  has  intermingled  the  remains  of  various  geo- 
logical epochs.  This  savant  found  in  the  cave  of  Massat  the 
bones  of  the  bear,  the  hyaena,  and  the  great  cave-lion,  the  fox, 
the  badger,  the  wild  boar,  the  roe,  &c.,  two  human  teeth,  and  a 
bone  arrow-head.  Two  beds  of  ashes  and  charcoal  were  also 
remarked  at  different  depths. 

In  the  upper  cave  of  Massat  was  found  the  curious  stone  on 
which  is  designed  with  tolerable  correctness  a  sketch  of  the  great 
cave-bear  (Fig.  36).  This  singular  record  marks  out  for  us  the 


Fig.  36. — Sketch  of  the  Great  Bear  on  a  Stone  found  in  the  Cave  of  Massat. 

earliest  trace  of  the  art  of  design,  which  we  shall  find  developing 
itself  in  a  more  decisive  way  during  the  pre-historic  period  which 
follows  the  one  we  are  now  considering. 

The  caves  of  Lherm  and  Bouicheta  were  inspected  by  MM. 
Garrigou  and  Filhol,  who  found  in  them  bones  of  most  of  the 
great  mammals  belonging  to  extinct  species,  and  particularly 
those  of  the  great  bear,  many  of  which  are  broken,  and  still  show 
the  marks  of  the  instruments  which  were  used  for  cutting  the 
flesh  off  them.  Some  have  been  gnawed  by  hyaenas,  as  proved  by 
the  deep  grooves  with  which  they  are  marked.  Lower  jaw-bones 
of  the  great  bear,  and  of  the  great  cave-lion,  have  been  found 
fashioned,  according  to  a  uniform  plan,  in  the  shape  of  hoes. 
MM.  Garrigou  and  Filhol  were  of  opinion  that  these  jaw-bones, 
when  thus  modified,  might  have  been  used  as  offensive  weapons. 

The  cave  of  Lherm  contained  also  human  bones;  namely, 
three  teeth,  a  fragment  of  a  scapula,  a  broken  ulna  and  radius, 
and  the  last  joint  of  the  great  toe ;  all  these  remains  presented 


76  THE  STONE  AGE. 

exactly  the  same  appearance  and  condition  as  those  of  the  Ursus 
spelceus,  and  must,  therefore,  have  belonged  to  the  same  epoch. 

We  have  stated  that  numerous  caves  have  been  explored  in 
England,  Belgium,  and  several  other  countries.  We  shall  not 
undertake  to  give  with  regard  to  each  details  which  would  only 
be  a  reproduction  of  those  which  precede.  We  therefore  confine 
ourselves  to  mentioning  the  most  celebrated  of  the  caverns 
belonging  to  the  epoch  of  the  great  bear  and  the  mammoth. 

In  England  we  have  the  Kent's  hole  and  Brixham  caverns,  near 
Torquay,  in  Devonshire,  the  latter  of  which  is  many  hundred  yards 
in  extent ;  the  caves  of  the  Gower  peninsula  in  Glamorganshire 
(South  Wales),  which  have  been  carefully  studied  within  the  last 
few  years  by  Messrs.  Falconer  and  Wood ;  in  these  were  found  flint 
instruments  along  with  bones  of  the  Elephas  antiquus  and  the 
Rhinoceros  hemitcechus,  species  which  were  still  more  ancient  than 
the  mammoth  and  the  Rhinoceros  tichorhinus  \ . those  of  Kirkdale, 
in  Yorkshire,  explored  by  Dr.  Buckland,  the  geologist ;  those  near 
Wells,  in  Somersetshire,  Wokey  Hole,  Minchin  Hole,  &c. 

We  must  mention,  in  the  north  of  Italy,  the  caves  of  Chiampo 
and  Laglio,  on  the  edge  of  the  Lake  of  Como,  in  which,  just  as 
at  Vergisson,  fragments  of  rough  pottery  have  been  discovered, 
indicating  some  degree  of  progress  in  the  manufacture  ;  also  the 
caves'  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Palermo,  and  especially  those  of 
San  Giro  and  Macagnone. 

In  the  last-mentioned  cave,  in  the  midst  of  an  osseous  breccia 
which  rose  to  the  roof,  Dr.  Falconer  collected  flint  instruments, 
splinters  of  bone,  pieces  of  baked  clay  and  wood  charcoal  mixed 
up  with  large  land-shells  (Helix  vermiculata),  in  a  perfect  state  of 
preservation,  horses'  teeth,  and  the  excrements  of  the  hyaena,  all 
cemented  together  in  a  deposit  of  carbonate  of  lime.  In  a  lower 
bed  were  found  the  bones  of  various  species  of  the  hippopotamus, 
the  Elephas  antiquus,  and  other  great  mammals. 

Lastly,  Spain,  Algeria,  Egypt,  and  Syria  also  present  to  our 
notice  caves  belonging  to  the  Stone  Age. 

In  the  New  World  various  bone-caverns  have  been  explored. 
We  must  especially  mention  Brazil,  in  which  country  Lund 
searched  no  less  than  eight  hundred  caves  of  different  epochs, 
exhuming  in  them  a  great  number  of  unknown  animal  species. 
In  one  of  these  caves,  situated  near  the  Lake  of  Sumidouro,  Lund 


EPOCH  OF  EXTINCT  ANIMALS.  77 

found  some  human  bones  which  had  formed  a  part  of  thirty 
individuals  of  different  ages,  and  were  "in  a  similar  state  of 
decomposition,  and  in  similar  circumstances,  to  the  bones  of 
various  extinct  species  of  animals." 

Thus  far  we  have  designedly  omitted  to  mention  the  Belgian 
caves.  They  have,  in  fact,  furnished  us  with  such  remarkable 
relics  of  former  ages  that,  in  dealing  with  them,  we  could  not 
confine  ourselves  to  a  mere  notice.  The  caves  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Lidge,  which  were  explored  in  1833  by  Schmerling, 
deserve  to  be  described  in  some  detail. 

Schmerling  examined  more  than  forty  caves  in  the  Valley  of 
the  Meuse  and  its  tributaries.  The  access  to  some  of  these  caves 
was  so  difficult  that  in  order  to  reach  them  it  was  necessary  for 
the  explorer  to  let  himself  down  by  a  cord,  and  then  to  crawl  flat 
on  his  face  through  narrow  galleries,  so  as  to  make  his  way  into 
the  great  chambers  ;  there  he  was  obliged  to  remain  for  hours,  and 
sometimes  whole  days,  standing  up  to  his  knees  in  mud,  with  water 
dripping  from  the  walls  upon  his  head,  while  overlooking  the 
workmen  breaking  up  with  their  pickaxes  the  layer  of  stalagmite, 
so  as  to  bring  to  light  the  bone-earth — the  records  on  which  are. 
inscribed  the  palpable  evidences  of  the  high  antiquity  of  man. 
Schmerling  was  compelled  to  accomplish  a  perilous  expedition 
of  this  kind  in  his  visit  to  the  cave  of  Engis,  which  has  become 
celebrated  by  the  two  human  skulls  found  there  by  him. 

Nearly  all  the  caves  in  the  province  of  Liege  contain  scattered 
bones  of  the  great  bear,  the  cave-hyaena,  the  mammoth,  and  the 
rhinoceros,  intermixed  with  those  of  species  which  are  still  living,, 
such  as  the  wolf,  the  wild  boar,  the  roe,  the  beaver,  the  porcu- 
pine, &c.  Several  of  them  contained  human  bones,  likewise  much 
scattered  and  rubbed  ;  they  were  found  in  all  positions,  and  at 
every  elevation,  sometimes  above  and  sometimes  below  the  above- 
mentioned  animal  remains ;  from  this  it  may  be  concluded  that 
these  caves  had  been  filled  with  running  water,  which  drifted  in  all 
kinds  of  debris.  None  of  them,  however,  contained  any  gnawed 
bones,  or  the  fossil  excrement  of  any  animal  species,  which  puts-, 
an  end  to  the  hypothesis  that  these  caves  had  been  used  as  dens, 
by  wild  beasts.  Here  and  there  bones  were  found  belonging  to 
the  same  skeleton,  which  were  in  perfect  preservation,  and  lying 
in  their  natural  juxtaposition ;  they  were  probably  drifted  into 


78  THE  STONE  AGE. 

the  cave  by  gently  flowing  water,  while  still  covered  with  their 
flesh,  and  no  movement  of  the  ground  had  since  separated  them. 
But  no  complete  skeleton  has  as  yet  been  discovered,  even  among 
the  smaller  species  of  mammiferous  animals,  the  disjunction  of 
which  is  generally  less  complete. 

In  almost  all  the  caves  Schmerling  met  with  flint  implements 
chipped  into  the  form  of  hatchets  and  knives,  and  he  calls  atten- 
tion to  the  fact  "  that  none  of  them  could  have  been  introduced 
into  the  caves  at  a  posterior  epoch,  as  they  were  found  in  the 
same  position  as  the  animal  remains  which  accompanied  them." 
In  the  cave  of  Clokier,  about  two  and  a  half  miles  from  Liege, 
he  picked  up  a  polished  bone  in  the  shape  of  a  needle,  having  an 
eye  pierced  at  the  base  ;  in  the  cave  of  Engis  he  likewise  found 
a  carved  bone,  and  also  some  worked  flints. 

We  here  close  our  enumeration  of  the  various  sources  of  the 
archaeological  records  which  have  served  to  reconstruct  the  history 
of  primitive  man  during  that  period  of  the  Stone  Age  which  we 
have  designated  under  the  name  of  the  epoch  of  the  great  bear  and 
the  mammoth.  Before  concluding  our  remarks  as  to  this  period, 
there  is  one  question  which  we  must  enter  upon,  although  there 
is  a  great  deficiency  in  any  positive  records  by  which  it  might  be 
solved.  What  was  the  organic  type  of  man  during  this  epoch  ? 
Could  we,  for  instance,  determine  what  amount  of  intellect  man 
possessed  in  this  earliest  and  ancient  date  of  his  history  ? 

The  answer  to  this  question — although  a  very  uncertain  answer 
— has  been  supposed  to  have  been  found  in  the  caves  of  Engis 
and  Engihoul,  of  which  we  have  just  spoken  as  having  been 
explored  by  Schmerling  with  such  valuable  results. 

The  cave  of  Engis  contained  the  remains  of  three  human  beings, 
among  which  were  two  skulls,  one  that  of  a  youth,  the  other  that  of 
an  adult.  The  latter  only  was  preserved,  the  former  having  fallen 
into  dust  while  it  was  being  extracted  from  the  ground.  Two  small 
fragments  of  a  human  skull  were  likewise  found  at  Engihoul,  also  a 
great  many  of  the  bones  of  the  hands  and  feet  of  three  individuals. 

The  Engis  skull  has  been  a  subject  of  protracted  argument  to 
the  palaeontologists  and  anatomists  of  the  present  day.  Floods 
of  ink  have  been  spilt  upon  the  question;  discussions  without  end 
have  taken  place  with  respect  to  this  piece  of  bone,  in  order  to 
fix  accurately  the  amount  of  intellect  possessed  by  the  inhabitants 


EPOCH  OF  EXTINCT  ANIMALS.  79 

of  Belgium  during  the  epoch  of  the  great  bear  and  the  mammoth. 
Up  to  a  certain  point  the  development  of  the  brain  may,  in  fact, 
be  ascertained  from  the  shape  of  the  cranial  envelope,  and  it  is 
well  known  that  a  remarkable  similarity  exists  between  the 
cerebral  capacity  and  the  intellectual  development  of  all  mammi- 
ferous  animals.  But  in  a  question  of  this  kind  we  must  carefully 
avoid  a  quicksand  on  which  anthropologists  too  often  make 
shipwreck ;  this  danger  consists  in  basing  a  theory  on  a  too 
limited  number  of  elements,  and  of  generalising  conclusions 
which  are  perhaps  drawn  from  one  special  case.  Because  we  find 
a  portion  of  a  skull — not  even  a  whole  skull — belonging  to  a 
human  being  contemporary  with  the  great  bear,  we  assume  that 
we  cannot  determine  the  amount  of  intellect  possessed  by  man 
during  this  epoch.  But  what  proof  have  we  that  this  skull  is 
not  that  of  an  idiot,  or,  on  the  contrary,  the  skull  of  an  individual 
possessing  a  superior  degree  of  intelligence  ?  What  deduction 
can  be  logically  drawn  from  the  examination  of  one  single  skull  ? 
None  whatever  !  "  Testis  unus  testis  nullus;"  and  what  is  said  by 
jurisprudence,  which  is  nothing  but  good  sense  in  legal  matters — 
science,  which  is  nothing  but  good  sense  in  learned  questions, 
ought  likewise  to  repeat.  If  we  found  ten  or  twelve  skulls,  each 
presenting  the  same  characteristics,  we  should  be  justified  in 
thinking  that  we  had  before  our  eyes  the  human  type  correspond- 
ing to  the  epoch  we  are  considering;  but,  we  again  ask,  what  argu- 
ments could  be  based  on  a  few  fragments  of  one  single  skull  ? 

These  reservations  having  been  laid  down,  let  us  see  what 
some  of  our  great  anatomical  reasoners  have  thought  about  the 
Engis  skull. 

The  representation  which  we  here  give  (Fig.  37)  of  the  Engis 
skull  was  taken  from  the  cast  in  the  Museum  of  Saint-Germain,  and 
we  may  perceive  from  it  that  the  skull  is  not  complete ;  the  entire 
base  of  the  skull  is  wanting,  and  all  the  bones  of  the  face  have 
disappeared.  Consequently  it  is  impossible  either  to  measure  the 
facial  angle  or  to  take  account  of  the  development  of  the  lower  jaw. 

We  shall  not  therefore  surprise  any  of  our  readers  when  we  stateX 
that  the  opinions  on  this  subject  differ  in  the  most  extraordinary     j 
degree.     In  the  eyes  of  Professor  Huxley,  the  English  anatomist, 
this  skull  offers  no  indication  of  degradation  ;  it  presents  "a  good    / 
average,"  and  it  might  just  as  well  be  the  head  of  a  philosopher  as  / 


So 


THE  STONE  AGE. 


I  the  head  of  an  uncivilised  savage.  To  others — for  instance,  to  Carl 

Vogt — it  indicates  an  altogether  rudimentary  degree  of  intellect. 

Thus,  Hippocrates-Huxley  says  yes,  Galen-Vogt  says  'no,  and 

Celsus-Lyell  says  neither  yes  nor  no.     This  causes  us  but  little 

surprise,  but  it  induces  us  not  to  waste  more  time  in  discussing 


Fig.  37.— Portion  of  a  Skull  of  an  Individual  belonging  to  the  Epoch  of  the  Great  Bear  and  the 
Mammoth,  found  in  the  Cave  of  Engis. 

a   question   altogether   in   the   dark,   that   is,   upon    altogether 
incomplete  data. 

We  will  now  turn  our  attention  to  another  skull,  equally  cele- 
brated, which  was  found  in  1857  by  Dr.  Fuhlrott,  near  Dusseldorf, 
in  a  deep  ravine  known  by  the  name  of  Neanderthal.  This  skull 


Fig.  38.— Portion  of  the  so-called  Neanderthal  Skull. 

(Fig.  38)  was  discovered  in  the  midst  of  a  small  cave  under  a 
layer  of  mud  about  5  feet  in  thickness.  The  entire  skeleton  was 
doubtless  buried  on  the  same  spot,  but  the  workmen  engaged  in 
clearing  out  the  cave  must  have  inadvertently  scattered  a  great 
portion  of  the  bones,  for  the  largest  only  could  be  collected. 
It  is  well  to  call  attention  to  the  fact  that  no  animal  remains 


EPOCH  OF  EXTINCT  ANIMALS.  81 

were  found  near  these  bones  ;  there  is,  therefore,  no  certain  proof 
that  theJatter  can  be  assigned  to  the  epoch  of  the  great  bear: 
they  might,  in  fact,  be  either  more  recent  or  more  modern.  Most 
geologists  are,  however,  of  opinion  that  they  ought  to  be  referred 
to  the  above-named  early  date. 

The  Neanderthal  skull,  of  which  we  possess  even  a  smaller 
portion  than  of  the  preceding,  differs  from  the  Engis  skull.  It 
is  characterised  by  an  extraordinary  development  of  the  frontal 
sinuses  ;  that  is,  by  an  enormous  projection  of  the  superciliary 
ridges,  behind  which  the  frontal  bone  presents  a  considerable 
depression.  The  cranium  is  very  thick,  and  of  an  elongated 
elliptical  shape ;  the  forehead  is  narrow  and  low. 

These  remarks  were  made  by  Professor  Schaafhausen,  who 
also  established  the  fact  of  the  identity  in  length  of  the  femur, 
the  humerus,  the  radius,  and  the  ulna,  with  the  same  bones  of  a 
modern  European  of  equal  size.  But  the  Prussian  savant  was 
surprised  at  the  really  remarkable  thickness  of  these  bones,  and 
also  at  the  large  development  of  the  projections  and  depressions 
which  served  for  the  insertion  of  the  muscles. 

Fig.  38  represents  this  skull,  which  is  drawn  from  the  cast  in 
the  Museum  of  Saint  Germain. 

Professor  Schaaf  hausen's  opinion  with  regard  to  this  skull  is 
that  it  manifests  a  degree  of  intelligence  more  limited  than  that 
of  the  races  of  negroes  who  are  least  favoured  by  nature  ;  in  other 
words,  it  approaches  the  nature  of  the  beast  more  nearly  than 
any  other  known  human  skull.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  Mr.  Busk 
and  Dr.  Barnard  Davis  look  upon  this  skull  as  very  closely  allied 
to  the  present  race  of  men  ;  and  Professor  Gratiolet  produced 
before  the  Anthropological  Society  of  Paris  an  idiot's  head  of 
the  present  day,  which  showed  all  the  osteological  characteristics 
peculiar  to  the  Neanderthal  skull.  Lastly,  an  anthropologist  of 
great  authority,  Dr.  Pruner-Bey,  has  brought  forward  all  requisite 
evidence  to  prove  that  the  Neanderthal  skull  is  identical,  in  all 
its  parts,  with  the  cranium  of  the  Celt. 

We  see,  therefore,  that  the  opinion  propounded  by  Dr.  Schaaf- 
hausen at  the  commencement  of  his  studies  was  not  able  to 
stand  its  ground  before  the  opposition  resulting  from  subsequent 
labours  on  the  point ;  and  that  this  head  of  a  man  belonging  to 
the  epoch  of  the  great  bear  and  mammoth,  which  he  regarded  ' 

« 


82  THE  STONE  AGE. 

as  manifesting  the  most  limited  amount  of  intelligence,  differed 
in  no  way  from  the  heads  belonging  to  Celts  of  historic  times, 
whose  moral  qualities  and  manly  courage  make  Frenchmen 
proud  to  call  themselves  their  descendants. 

We  need  scarcely  add  that  the  examination  of  this  latter  skull, 
which  dated  back  to  the  first  origin  of  mankind,  is  sufficient  to  set 
at  naught  all  that  has  been  written  as  to  the  pretended  analogy 
of  structure  existing  between  primitive  man  and  the  ape,  and  to 
wipe  out  for  ever  from  scientific  phraseology  the  improper  and 
unhappy  term  fossil  man,  which  has  not  only  been  the  cause  of 
so  many  lamentable  misunderstandings,  but  has  also  too  long 
arrested  the  formation  and  the  progress  of  the  science  of  the 
first  starting-point  of  man. 

Other  remains  of  human  skulls,  appearing  to  date  back  to  a 
very  ancient  epoch,  have  been  found  in  various  countries,  since 
the  discovery  of  those  above-named.  We  will  mention  a  jaw- 
bone found  by  M.  Edouard  Dupont  in  the  cave  of  Naulette,  near 
Dinant,  in  Belgium  ;  a  frontal  and  parietal  bone,  extracted  from 
the  Lehin  in  the  valley  of  the  Rhine,  at  Eggisheim,  near  Colmar, 
by  Dr.  Faudel ;  a  skull  found  by  Professor  Bocchi,  of  Florence, 
in  the  Olmo  pass,  near  Arezzo ;  lastly,  the  celebrated  jaw-bone 
from  Moulin-Quignon,  near  Abbeville,  found  in  1863  by  Boucher 
de  Perthes,  in  the  diluvium,  of  which  bone  we  have  given  an 
illustration  in  the  introduction  to  this  volume.  It  is  acknowledged 
by  all  anthropologists  that  this  portion  of  the  skull  of  the  man 
of  Moulin-Quignon  bears  a  perfect  resemblance  to  that  of  a  man 
of  small  size  of  the  present  age. 

From  the  small  number  of  skulls  which  we  possess,  it  is  im- 
possible for  us  to  estimate  what  was  the  precise  degree  of 
intelligence  to  be  ascribed  to  man  at  the  epoch  of  the  great  bear 
and  mammoth.  No  one,  assuredly,  will  be  surprised  at  the  fact 
that  the  human  skull  in  these  prodigiously  remote  ages  did  not 
present  any  external  signs  of  great  intellectual  development. 
The  nature  of  man  is  eminently  improvable ;  it  is,  therefore, 
easily  to  be  understood,  that  in  the  earliest  ages  of  his  appearance 
on  the  earth  his  intelligence  should  have  been  of  a  limited 
character.  Time  and  progress  were  destined  both  to  improve 
and  extend  it ;  the  flame  of  the  first-lighted  torch  was  to  be  ex- 
panded with  the  lapse  of  centuries  ! 


II. 

EPOCH  OF    THE  REINDEER,    OR   OF  MIGRATED  ANIMALS. 


CHAPTER    I. 

Mankind  during  the  Epoch  of  the  Reindeer — Their  Manners  and  Customs — Food — 
Garments — Weapons,  Utensils,  and  Implements — Pottery— Ornaments — Primitive 
Arts — The  principal  Caverns — Type  of  the  Human  Race  during  the  Epoch  of  the 
Reindeer. 

WE  have  now  arrived  at  that  subdivision  of  the  Stone  Age  which 
we  designate  by  the  name  of  the  Reindeer  Epoch,  or  the  Epoch  of 
migrated  animals.  Many  ages  have  elapsed  since  the  commence- 
ment of  the  quaternary  geological  epoch.  The  mighty  animals 
which  characterised  the  commencement  of  this  period  have  dis- 
appeared, or  are  on  the  point  of  becoming  extinct.  The  great 
bear  (Ursus  spelceus)  and  the  cave-hyaena  (Hycena  spelced)  will 
soon  cease  to  tread  the  soil  of  our  earth.  It  will  not  be  long 
before  the  final  term  will  be  completed  of  the  existence  of  the 
cave-lion  (Felis  spelcea),  the  mammoth,  and  the  Rhinoceros  tichor- 
hinus.  Created  beings  diminish  in  size  as  they  improve  in  type. 

To  make  up  for  these  losses,  numerous  herds  of  reindeer  now 
inhabit  the  forests  of  Western  Europe.  In  that  part  of  the  conti- 
nent which  was  one  day  to  be  called  France,  these  animals  make 
their  way  as  far  as  the  Pyrenees.  The  horse  (Equus  caballus\  in 
no  way  different  from  the  present  species,  is  the  companion  of  the 
above-named  valuable  ruminant ;  also  the  bison  (Biso  europceus\ 
the  urus  (Bos  primigenius\  the  musk-ox  (Ovibos  mosckatus),  the 
elk,  the  deer,  the  chamois,  the  ibex,  and  various  species  of  rodents, 
amongst  others,  the  beaver,  the  hamster-rat,  the  lemming,  the 
spermophilus,  &c. 

After  the  intense  cold  of  the  glacial  period  the  temperature  has 
become  sensibly  milder,  but  it  is  still  much  lower  than  at  the 
present  day  in  the  same  countries  ;  as  the  reindeer,  an  animal 
belonging  to  a  hyperborean  climate,  can  both  enjoy  life  and  mul- 
tiply in  the  comparatively  southern  part  of  Europe. 

The  general  composition  of  the  fauna  which  we  have  just 
described  is  a  striking  proof  of  the  rigorous  cold  which  still 


86  THE  STONE  AGE. 

characterised  the  climate  of  central  Europe.  Animals  which  then 
inhabited  those  countries  are  now  only  met  with  in  the  high 
northern  latitudes  of  the  old  and  new  worlds,  in  close  proximity 
to  the  ice  and  snow,  or  on  the  lofty  summits  of  great  mountain- 
chains.  To  localities  of  this  kind  have  now  retired  the  reindeer, 
the  musk-ox,  the  elk,  the  chamois,  the  wild  goat,  the  hamster-rat, 
the  lemming,  and  the  spermophilus.  The  beaver,  too,  is  at  the 
present  day  confined  almost  entirely  to  Canada. 

Mr.  Christy,  an  English  naturalist,  has  remarked  with  much 
acuteness  that  the  accumulations  of  bones  and  other  organic 
remains  in  caves  actually  imply  the  existence  of  a  rigorous  climate. 
Under  the  influence  of  even  a  merely  moderate  temperature, 
these  accumulations  of  bones  and  animal  remains  would,  in  fact, 
have  given  forth  putrid  exhalations  which  would  have  prevented 
any  human  being  from  living  in  close  contiguity  to  these  infectious 
heaps.  The  Esquimaux  of  the  present  day  live,  in  this  respect, 
very  much  like  the  people  of  primitive  ages — that  is,  close  by  the 
side  of  the  most  fetid  debris ;  but,  except  in  the  cold  regions  of 
the  north,  they  would  be  quite  unable  to  do  this. 

What  progress  was  made  by  the  man  of  the  reindeer  epoch 
(Fig.  39)  beyond  that  attained  by  his  ancestors  ?  This  is  the 
question  we  are  about  to  consider.  But  we  must  confine  the 
sphere  of  our  study  to  the  only  two  countries  in  which  a  sufficient 
number  of  investigations  have  been  made  in  respect  to  the  epoch 
of  the  reindeer.  We  allude  to  that  part  of  Europe  which  now- 
adays forms  France  and  Belgium. 

During  the  reindeer  epoch,  man  wrought  the  flint  to  better 
effect  than  in  the  preceding  period.  He  also  manufactured  some- 
what remarkable  implements  in  bone,  ivory,  and  reindeer's  horn. 
In  the  preceding  period,  human  bones  were  found  in  caves,  mixed 
up  indiscriminately  with  those  of  animals;  in  the  epoch  we  are  now 
considering,  this  promiscuous  intermingling  is  no  longer  met  with. 

We  shall  first  pass  in  review  man  as  existing  in  this  epoch,  in 
respect  to  his  habitation  and  food.  We  shall  then  proceed  to 
speak  of  the  productions  of  his  industry,  and  also  of  the  earliest 
essays  of  his  artistic  genius.  Lastly,  we  shall  briefly  consider  his 
physical  organisation. 

With  respect  to  his  habitation,  man,  during  the  reindeer  epoch  ; 


Fig.  39.— Man  of  the  Reindeer  Epoch.    (Page  86. 


EPOCH  OF  MIGRATED  ANIMALS.  87 

still  took  up  his  abode  in  caves.  According  to  their  depth  and 
the  light  penetrating  them,  he  either  occupied  the  whole  extent 
of  them  or  established  himself  in  the  outlet  only.  About  the 
centre  of  the  cavern  some  slabs  of  stone,  selected  from  the 
hardest  rocks,  such  as  sandstone  or  slate,  were  bedded  down  in 
the  ground,  and  formed  the  hearth  for  cooking  his  food.  During 
the  long  nights  of  winter  the  whole  family  must  have  assembled 
round  this  hearth. 

Sometimes,  in  order  the  better  to  defend  himself  against  the 
various  surprises  to  which  he  was  exposed,  the  man  of  the  reindeer 
epoch  selected  a  cavern  with  a  very  narrow  inlet  which  could 
only  be  entered  by  climbing. 

A  cave  formed  naturally  in  the  deepest  clefts  and  hollows  of 
some  rock  constituted,  in  every  climate,  the  earliest  habitation  of 
man.  In  cold  climates  it  was  necessary  for  him  to  find  some 
retreat  in  which  to  pass  the  night,  and  in  warmer  latitudes  he 
had  to  ward  off  the  heat  of  the  day.  But  these  natural  dwellings 
could  only  be  met  with  in  districts  where  rocks  existed  which 
offered  facilities  for  cover  in  the  way  of  clefts  and  holes.  When 
man  took  up  his  abode  in  a  level  country,  he  was  compelled  to 
construct  for  himself  some  place  of  shelter.  By  collecting  to- 
gether stones,  brought  from  various  directions,  he  then  managed 
to  build  an  artificial  cavern.  Choosing  a  spot  where  some  natural 
projection  overhung  the  ground,  he  enlarged,  as  far  as  he  was  able, 
this  natural  roof,  and,  bringing  art  to  the  assistance  of  nature,  he 
ultimately  found  himself  in  possession  of  a  convenient  retreat. 

We  must  not  omit  to  add  that  the  spot  in  which  he  established 
his  dwelling  was  always  in  the  vicinity  of  some  running  stream. 

In  this  way,  therefore,  the  inhabitants  of  the  plains  formed 
their  habitations  during  the  epoch  which  we  are  considering. 

We  have,  also,  certain  proofs  that  primitive  tribes,  during  this 
period,  did  not  take  up  their  abode  in  natural  caverns  exclusively, 
but  that  they  were  able  to  make  for  themselves  more  convenient 
sheltering-places  under  the  cover  of  some  great  overhanging  rock. 
In  various  regions  of  France,  especially  in  Perigord,  numerous 
ancient  open-air  human  settlements  have  been  discovered.  They 
must  have  been  mere  sheds  or  places  of  shelter,  leaning  against 
the  base  of  some  high  cliff,  and  protected  against  the  inclemency 


88  THE  STONE  AGE. 

of  the  weather  by  projections  of  the  rock  which,  more  or  less, 
hung  over  them,  forming  a  kind  of  roof.  The  name  of  rock- 
shelters  has  been  given  to  these  dwellings  of  primitive  man. 

These  wild  retreats  are  generally  met  with  in  the  lower  part  of 
some  valley  in  close  proximity  to  a  running  stream.  They,  like 
the  caverns,  contain  very  rich  deposits  of  the  bones  of  mammals, 
birds,  and  fishes,  and  also  specimens  of  hatchets  and  utensils  made 
of  flint,  bone,  and  horn.  Traces  of  hearths  are  also  discovered. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  of  these  natural  shelters  belonging 
to  the  reindeer  epoch  has  been  discovered  at  Bruniquel,  in  the 
department  of  Tarn-et-Garonne,  not  far  from  Montauban. 

On  the  left  bank  of  the  river  Aveyron,  under  the  overhanging 
shelter  of  one  of  the  highest  rocks  of  Bruniquel  and  in  close 
proximity  to  a  chateau,  the  picturesque  ruins  of  which  still  stand 
on  the  brow  of  the  cliff  above,  there  was  discovered,  in  1866,  a 
fire-hearth  of  the  pre-historic  period ;  this  hearth  and  its  sur- 
roundings have  afforded  us  the  most  complete  idea  of  one  of  the 
rock-shelters  of  man  during  the  reindeer  epoch. 

This  rock,  known  by  the  name  of  Montastruc,  is  about  98  feet 
high,  and  it  overhangs  the  ground  below  for  an  extent  of  46  to 
49  feet.  It  covers  an  area  of  298  square  yards.  In  this  spot, 
M.  V.  Brun,  the  Director  of  the  Museum  of  Natural  History  at 
Montauban,  found  a  host  of  objects  of  various  descriptions,  the 
study  of  which  has  furnished  many  useful  ideas  for  the  history  of 
this  epoch  of  primitive  humanity. 

By  taking  advantage  of  the  photographic  views  of  the  pre- 
historic settlement  of  Bruniquel,  which  M.  V.  Brun  has  been  kind 
enough  to  forward  to  us,  we  have  been  enabled  to  compose  the 
sketch  which  is  presented  in  Fig.  40  of  a  rock-shelter,  or  an  open- 
air  settlement  of  man  in  the  reindeer  epoch. 

Men  during  the  reindeer  epoch  did  not  possess  any  notion  of 
agriculture.  They  had  not  as  yet  subdued  and  domesticated  any 
animal  so  as  to  profit  by  its  strength,  or  to  ensure  by  its  means  a 
constant  supply  of  food.  They 'were,  therefore,  like  their  fore- 
fathers, essentially  hunters ;  and  pursued  wild  animals,  killing 
them  with  their  spears  or  arrows.  The  reindeer  was  the  animal 
which  they  chiefly  attacked.  This  mammal,  which  then  existed 
all  over  Europe,  in  the  centre  as  well  as  in  the  south  (although  it 
has  now  retired  or  migrated  into  the  regions  of  the  extreme 


Fig.  40.— Rock-shelter  at  Bruniquel,  a  supposed  Habitation  of  Man  during  the  Reindeer  Epoch.    (Page  88.) 


EPOCH  OF  MIGRATED  ANIMALS.  89 

north),  was  for  the  man  of  this  period  all  that  it  nowadays  is  to 
the  Laplander — the  most  precious  gift  of  nature.  They  fed  upon 
its  flesh  and  made  their  garments  of  its  skin,  utilising  its  tendons 
as  thread  in  the  preparation  of  their  dress  ;  its  bones  and  its 
antlers  they  converted  into  all  kinds  of  weapons  and  implements. 
Reindeer's  horn  was  the  earliest  raw  material  in  the  manufactures 
of  these  remote  ages,  and  to  the  man  of  this  epoch  was  all  that 
iron  is  to  us. 

The  horse,  the  ox,  the  urus,  the  elk,  the  ibex,  and  the  chamois, 
all  formed  a  considerable  part  of  the  food  of  men  during  this 
epoch.  They  were  in  the  habit  of  breaking  the  long  bones  and 
the  skulls  of  the  recently-killed  animals,  in  order  to  extract  the 
marrow  and  the  brain,  which  they  ate  all  steaming  with  the 
natural  animal  heat,  as  is  done  in  the  present  day  by  certain 
tribes  in  the  Arctic  regions.  The  meat  of  this  animal  was  cooked 
on  their  rough  hearths ;  for  they  did  not  eat  it  raw,  as  some 
naturalists  have  asserted.  The  animal  bones  which  have  been 
found,  intermingled  with  human  remains,  in  the  caverns  of  this 
epoch,  bear  evident  traces  of  the  action  of  fire. 

To  this  animal  prey  they  occasionally  added  certain  birds,  such 
as  the  great  heath-cock,  willow-grouse,  owl,  &c.  When  this  kind 
of  game  fell  short,  they  fell  back  upon  the  rat.  Round  the  hearth- 
stone, in  the  cave  of  Chaleux,  M.  Dupont  found  more  than  twenty 
pounds  weight  of  the  bones  of  water-rats,  half  roasted. 

Fish  is  an  article  of  food  which  has  always  been  much  sought 
after  by  man.  By  mere  inference  we  might,  therefore,  readily 
imagine  that  man  during  the  reindeer  epoch  fed  on  fish  as  well 
as  the  flesh  of  animals,  even  if  the  fact  were  not  attested  by 
positive  evidence.  This  evidence  is  afforded  by  the  remains  of 
fish-bones  which  are  met  with  in  the  caves  of  this  epoch,  inter- 
mingled with  the  bones  of  mammals,  and  also  by  sketches 
representing  parts  of  fishes,  which  are  found  roughly  traced  on  a 
great  number  of  fragments  of  bone  and  horn  implements. 

The  art  of  fishing,  therefore,  must  certainly  have  been  in  exist- 
ence during  the  reindeer  epoch.  We  cannot  assert  that  it  was 
practised  during  that  of  the  great  bear  and  the  mammoth ;  but,  as 
regards  the  period  we  are  now  considering,  no  doubt  can  be  enter- 
tained on  the  point.  In  an  article  on  the  "  Origine  de  la  Navigation 
et  de  la  Peche,"  M.  G.  de  Mortillet  expresses  himself  as  follows: — 


90  THE  STONE  AGE. 

"  The  epoch  of  the  reindeer  presents  to  our  notice  several 
specimens  of  fishing-tackle.  The  most  simple  is  a  little  splinter 
of  bone,  generally  about  one  to  two  inches  long,  straight,  slender, 
and  pointed  at  both  ends.  This  is  the  primitive  and  elementary 
fish-hook.  This  small  fragment  of  bone  or  reindeer  horn  was 
fastened  by  the  middle  and  covered  with  a  bait ;  when  swallowed 
by  a  fish,  or  even  by  an  aquatic  bird,  it  became  fixed  in  the  in- 
terior of  the  body  by  one  of  the  pointed  ends,  and  the  voracious 
creature  found  itself  caught  by  the  cord  attached  to  the  primitive 
hook.  At  the  Museum  of  Saint-Germain  there  are  several  of 
these  hooks,  which  came  from  the  rich  deposits  of  Bruniquel,  near 
Montauban  (Tarn-et-Garonne). 

"  Hooks  belonging  to  the  reindeer  epoch  have  also  been  found 
in  the  caves  and  retreats  of  Dordogne,  so  well  explored  by  MM. 
Lartet  and  Christy.  Along  with  those  of  the  simple  form  which 
we  have  just  described,  others  were  met  with  of  a  much  more 
perfect  shape.  These  are  likewise  small  fragments  of  bone  or 
reindeer's  horn,  with  deep  and  wide  notches  on  one  side,  forming 
a  more  or  less  developed  series  of  projecting  and  sharp  teeth,  or 
barbs.  Two  of  them  are  depicted  in  PLATE  B,  VI.  of  the  '  Reli- 
quise  Aquitanicae.'  M.  Lartet  is  in  possession  of  several  of  them ; 
but  the  most  remarkable  specimen  forms  a  part  of  the  beautiful 
collection  of  M.  Peccadeau  de  1'Isle,  of  Paris.'!* 

There  are  strong  reasons  for  believing  that  man  during  this 
epoch  did  not  confine  himself  to  a  diet  of  an  exclusively  carni- 
vorous character,  for  vegetable  food  is  in  perfect  harmony  with 
the  organisation  of  our  species.  By  means  of  wild  fruits,  acorns, 
and  chestnuts,  he  must  have  introduced  some  little  variety  into 
his  ordinary  system  of  sustenance. 

From  the  data  which  we  have  been  considering,  we  furnish,  in 
Fig.  41,  a  representation  of  a  feast  during  the  reindeer  epoch. 
Men  are  engaged  in  cleaving  the  head  of  a  urus,  in  order  to  ex.- 
tract  and  devour  the  smoking  brains.  Others,  sitting  round  the 
fire  in  which  the  flesh  of  the  same  animal  is  being  cooked,  are 
sucking  out  the  marrow  from  the  long  bones  of  the  reindeer, 
which  they  have  broken  by  blows  with  a  hatchet. 

It  becomes  a  very  interesting  question  to  know  whether  the 
*  "  Origine  de  la  Navigation  et  de  la  Peche."  Paris,  1867,  p.  25. 


EPOCH  OF  MIGRATED  ANIMALS.  91 

men  of  these  remote  periods  practised  cannibalism  or  not.     On  ) 
this  point  we  have  as  yet  no  certain  information.     We  will,  how- 
ever, state  some  facts  which  seem  to  make  in  favour  of  this  idea. 

Human  skulls  have  been  found  in  Scotland  mixed  up  promis- 
cuously with  sculptured  flints,  remains  of  pottery,  and  children's 
bones  ;  on  the  latter,  Professor  Owen  thinks  that  he  can  recognise 
the  trace  of  human  teeth. 

At  Solutre,  in  Maconnais,  M.  de  Ferry  has  discovered  human 
finger-joints  among  the  remains  of  cooking  of  the  epoch  of  the 
great  bear  and  mammoth,  and  of  that  of  the  reindeer. 

The  appearance  of  certain  bones  from  the  cave  of  Ariege,  dug 
up  by  MM.  Garrigou  and  Filhol,  has  led  both  these  savants  to  the 
opinion  "  that  pre-historic  man  may  have  been  anthropophagous." 

The  same  conclusion  would  be  arrived  at  from  the  explorations 
which  have  been  undertaken  in  the  grottos  and  caves  of  Northern 
Italy  by  M.  Costa  de  Beauregard.  This  latter  savant  found  in 
the  caves  the  small  shin-bone  of  a  child  which  had  been  carefully 
emptied  and  cleansed,  leading  to  the  idea  that  the  marrow  had 
been  eaten. 

At  a  point  near  Finale,  on  the  road  from  Genoa  to  Nice,  in  a 
vast  cave  which  was  for  a  long  period  employed  as  a  habitation 
for  our  race,  M.  Issel  discovered  some  human  bones  which  had 
evidently  been  calcined.  Their  whitish  colour,  their  lightness, 
and  their  friability  left  no  room  for  doubt  on  the  point.  Added 
to  this,  the  incrustations  on  their  surface  still  contained  small 
fragments  of  carbon.  Moreover,  many  of  the  bones  showed 
notches  which  could  not  have  been  made  without  the  help  of 
some  sharp  instrument. 

It  is,  therefore,  probable  that  men  in  the  Stone  Age  practised 
anthropophagy;  we  have,  really,  no  cause  to  be  surprised  at  this, 
since,  in  our  own  days,  various  savage  tribes  are  addicted  to  can- 
nibalism, under  a  considerable  diversity  of  circumstances. 

Not  the  least  trace  has  been  discovered  of  animals'  bones  being 
gnawed  by  dogs  in  any  of  the  human  settlements  during  the 
reindeer  epoch.  Man,  therefore,  had  not  as  yet  reduced  the  dog 
to  a  state  of  domesticity. 

How  did  primitive  man  dress  himself  during  this  epoch  ?  He 
must  have  made  garments  out  of  the  skins  of  the  quadrupeds 


92  THE  STONE  AGE. 

which  he  killed  in  hunting,  and  especially  of  the  reindeer's  hide. 
There  can  be  no  doubt  on  this  point.  A  large  number  of  reindeers' 
antlers  found  in  Perigord  have  at  their  base  certain  cuts  which 
evidently  could  only  have  been  produced  in  flaying  the  animal. 

It  is  no  less  certainly  proved  that  these  men  knew  how  to  pre- 
pare animals'  skins  by  clearing  them  of  their  hair,  and  that  they 
were  no  longer  compelled,  like  their  ancestors,  to  cover  them- 
selves with  rough  bear-skins  still  covered  with  their  fur.  To 
what  purpose  could  they  have  applied  the  flint  scrapers  which 
are  met  with  everywhere  in  such  abundance,  except  for  scraping 
the  hair  off  the  skins  of  wild  beasts  ?  Having  thus  taken  off 
the  hair,  they  render  them  supple  by  rubbing  them  in  with  brains 


Fig.  42. — Flint  Bodkin  or  Stiletto  for  sewing  Reindeer  Fig.  43. — Bone  Needle  for 

Skins,  found  in  the  Cave  of  Les  Eyzies  (Perigord).  sewing. 

and  the  marrow  extracted  from  the  long  bones  of  the  reindeer. 
Then  they  cut  them  out  into  some  very  simple  patterns,  which 
are,  of  course,  absolutely  unknown  to  us;  and,  finally,  they  joined 
together  the  different  pieces  by  rough  sewing. 

The  fact  that  man  at  this  epoch  knew  how  to  sew  together 
reindeer  skins,  so  as  to  convert  them  into  garments,  is  proved  by 
the  discovery  of  numerous  specimens  of  instruments  which  must 
have  been  used  for  this  work  ;  these  are — and  this  is  most  re- 
markable— exactly  the  same  as  those  employed  nowadays  by 
the  Laplanders  for  the  same  purpose.  They  consist  of  bodkins 
or  stilettos  made  of  flint  and  bone  (Fig.  42),  by  means  of  which 
the  holes  were  pierced  in  the  skin ;  also  very  carefully-fashioned 
needles,  mostly  of  bone  or  horn  (Fig.  43). 


EPOCH  OF  MIGRATED  ANIMALS. 


93 


The  inspection  of  certain  reindeer  bones  has  likewise  enabled 
us  to  recognise  the  fact  that  the  men  of  this  age  used  for  thread 
the  sinewy  fibres  of  this  animal.  On  these  bones  transverse  cuts 
may  be  noticed,  just  in  those  very  spots  where  the  section  of  the 
tendon  must  have  taken  place. 

No  metal  was  as  yet  known  ;  consequently,  man  continued  to 
make  use  of  stone  instruments  both  for  the  implements  of  labour 
and  also  for  offensive  and  defensive  weapons.  The  hatchet  was 
but  little  employed  as  a  weapon  of  war,  and  the  flint  knife  was 
the  arm  most  extensively  used.  We  must  add  to  this  another 
potent  although  natural  weapon  ;  this  was  the  lower  jaw-bone  of 
the  great  bear,  still  retaining  its  sharp  and  pointed  canine  tooth. 
The  elongated  and  solid  bone  furnished  the  handle,  and  the 
sharp  tooth  the  formidable  point ;  and  with  this  instrument  man 
could  in  the  chase  attack  and  pierce  any  animal  with  which  he 
entered  into  a  hand-to-hand  conflict. 

It  may  be  noticed  that  this  weapon  is  placed  in  the  hand  of  the 
man  in  Fig.  39,  which  represents  him  during  the  reindeer  epoch. 

It  must  certainly  be  the  case  that 
the  human  race  possesses  to  a  very 
high  degree  the  taste  for  personal 
ornament,  since  objects  used  for 
adornment  are  found  in  the  most 
remote  ages  of  mankind  and  in 
every  country.  There  can  be  no 
doubt  that  the  men  and  women  who 
lived  in  the  reindeer  epoch  sacrificed 
to  the  graces.  In  the  midst  of  their 
precarious  mode  of  life  the  idea  en- 
tered into  their  minds  of  manu- 
facturing necklaces,  bracelets,  and 
pendants,  either  with  shells,  which 
they  bored  through  the  middle  so 
as  to  be  able  to  string  them  as  beads, 
or  with  the  teeth  of  various  animals,  which  they  pierced  with 
holes  with  the  same  intention,  as  represented  in  Fig.  44. 

The  horny  portion  of  the  ear  of  the  horse  or  ox  (Fig.  45)  was  like- 
wise used  for  the  same  purpose,  that  is,  as  an  object  of  adornment. 


Fig.  44.— The  Ca-  Fig.     45.  —  Ornament 
nine  Tooth   of  a    made  of  the  bony  part 
Wolf,    bored    so    of  a  Horse's  Ear. 
as  to  be  used  as 
an  ornament. 


94  THE  STONE  AGE. 

It  becomes  a  question  whether  man  at  this  epoch  had  any  belief 
in  a  future  life,  and  practised  anything  which  bore  a  resemblance 
to  religious  worship.  The  existence  round  the  fire-hearths  of  the 
burial-caverns  in  Belgium,  of  large  fossil  elephant  (mammoth's) 
bones — a  fact  which  has  been  pointed  out  by  M.  Edouard  Dupont 
— gives  us  some  reason  for  answering  this  question  in  the  affir- 
mative. According  to  M.  Morlot,  the  practice  of  placing  bones 
round  caverns  still  survives,  as  a  religious  idea,  among  the 
Indians.  We  may,  therefore,  appeal  to  this  discovery  as  a  hint 
in  favour  of  the  existence  of  some  religious  feeling  among  the 
men  Avho  lived  during  the  reindeer  epoch. 

In  the  tombs  of  this  epoch  are  found  the  weapons  and  knives 
which  men  carried  during  their  lifetime,  and  sometimes  even  a 
supply  of  the  flesh  of  animals  used  for  food.  This  custom  of 
placing  near  the  body  of  the  dead  provisions  for  the  journey  to 
"be  taken  post  mortem  is,  as  remarked  in  reference  to  the  preceding 
period,  the  proof  of  a  belief  in  another  life. 

Certain  religious,  or  rather  superstitious,  ideas  may  have  been 
attached  to  some  glittering  stones  and  bright  fragments  of  ore 
which  have  been  picked  up  in  several  settlements  of  these  primitive 
tribes.  M.  d eVib ray e found  at  Bourdeilles  (Charente)  two  nodules 
of  hydrated  oxide  of  iron  mixed  with  debris  of  all  kinds  ;  and  at 
the  settlement  of  Laugerie-Basse  (Dordogne),  in  the  middle  of 
the  hearth,  a  small  mass  of  copper  covered  with  a  layer  of  green 
carbonate.  In  other  spots  there  have  been  met  with  pieces  of  jet, 
violet  fluor,  &c.,  pierced  through  the  middle,  doubtless  to  enable 
them  to  be  suspended  to  the  neck  and  ears.  The  greater  part  of 
these  objects  may  possibly  be  looked  upon  as  amulets — that  is, 
symbols  of  some  religious  beliefs  entertained  by  man  during  the 
reindeer  epoch. 

The  social  instinct  of  man,  the  feeling  which  compels  him  to  form 
.an  alliance  with  his  fellow-man,  had  already  manifested  itself  at  this 
early  period.  Communication  was  established  between  localities  at 
;some  considerable  distance  from  one  another.  Thus  it  was  that 
the  inhabitants  of  the  banks  of  the  Lesse  in  Belgium  travelled  as  far 
as  that  part  of  France  which  is  now  called  Champagne,  in  order  to 
.seek  the  flints  which  they  could  not  find  in  their  own  districts, 
although  they  were  indispensable  to  them  in  order  to  manufacture 


EPOCH  OF  MIGRATED  ANIMALS. 


95 


their  weapons  and  implements.  They  likewise  brought  back  fossil 
shells,  of  which  they  made  fantastical  necklaces.  This  distant 
intercourse  cannot  be  called  in  question,  for  certain  evidences  of 
it  can  be  adduced.  M.  Edouard  Dupont  found  in  the  cave  of 
Chaleux,  near  Dinant  (Belgium),  fifty-four  of  these  shells,  which 
are  not  found  naturally  anywhere  else  than  in  Champagne.  Here, 
therefore,  we  have  the  rudiments  of  commerce — that  is  of  the  im- 
portation and  exchange  of  commodities  which  form  its  earliest 
manifestations  in  all  nations  of  the  world. 

Again,  it  may  be  stated  that  there  existed  at  this  epoch  real 
manufactories  of  weapons  and  utensils,  the  productions  of  which 
were  distributed  around  the  neighbouring  country  according  to 
the  particular  requirements  of  each  family.  The  cave  of  Chaleux, 
which  was  mentioned  above,  seems  to  have  been  one  of  these 
places  of  manufacture  ;  for  from  the  8th  to  the  3Oth  of  May, 
during  twenty-two  days  only,  there  were  collected  at  this  spot 
nearly  20,000  flints  chipped  into  hatchets,  daggers,  knives, 
scrapers,  scratchers,  &c. 

Workshops  of  this  kind  were  established  in  the 
settlements  of  Laugerie-Basse  and  Laugerie- 
Haute  in  Perigord.  The  first  was  to  all  appear- 
ance a  special  manufactory  for  spear-heads,  some 
specimens  of  which  have  been  found  by  MM. 
Lartet  and  Christy  of  an  extremely  remarkable 
nature ;  exact  representations  of  them  are  deline- 
ated in  Fig.  46.  In  the  second  were  fabricated 
weapons  and  implements  of  reindeer's  horn,  if  we 
may  judge  by  the  large  quantity  of  remains  of 
the  antlers  of  those  animals,  which  were  met 
with  by  these  savants,  almost  all  of  which  bear 
the  marks  of  sawing. 

It  is  not,  however,  probable  that  the  objects 
thus  manufactured  were  exported  to  any  great 
distance,  as  was  subsequently  the  case — that  is,  in 
the  polished  stone  epoch.  How  would  it  be  pos-  . 

Laugerie-Basse  (Pen- 

sible  to  cross  great  rivers,  and  to  pass  through    s°rd)- 

wide  tracts  overgrown  with  thick  forests,  in  order  to  convey  far 

and  wide  these  industrial  products ;   at  a  time,  too,  when  no 


_ 

Fig.   46.  —  Spear  -  head 

ound  in    e  Cae  °f 


96 


THE  STONE  AGE. 


means  of  communication  existed  between  one  country  and  an- 
other? But  it  is  none  the  less  curious  to  be  able  to  verify  the  exist- 
ence of  a  rudimentary  commerce  exercised  at  so  remote  an  epoch. 

The  weapons,  utensils,  and  implements  which  were  used  by  man 
during  the  reindeer  epoch  testify  to  a  decided  progress  having  been 
made  beyond  those  of  the  preceding  period.  The  implements  are 
made  of  flint,  bone,  or  horn ;  but  the  latter  kind  are  much  the 
most  numerous,  chiefly  in  the  primitive  settlements  in  the  centre 
and  south  of  France.  Those  of  Perigord  are  especially  remarkable 
for  the  abundance  of  instruments  made  of  reindeers'  bones. 

The  great  diversity  of  type  in  the  wrought  flints  furnishes  a 
very  evident  proof  of  the  long  duration  of  the  historical  epoch  we 


Fig.  47.— Worked  Flint  from 
Perigord  (Knife). 


Fig.  48.— Worked  Flint  from 
Perigord  (Hatchet). 


are  considering.  In  the  series  of  these  instruments  we  can  trace 
all  the  phases  of  improvement  in  workmanship,  beginning  with 
the  rough  shape  of  the  hatchets  found  in  the  dihwium  at  Abbe- 
ville, and  culminating  in  those  elegant  spear-heads  which  are  but 
little  inferior  to  any  production  of  later  times. 

We  here  give  representations  (Figs.  47,  48,  49,  50)  of  the  most 
curious  specimens  of  the  stone  and  flint  weapons  of  the  reindeer 
epoch.  Knives  and  other  small  instruments,  such  as  scrapers, 


EPOCH  OF  MIGRATED  ANIMALS. 


97 


piercers,  borers,  &c.,  form  the  great  majority  ;  hatchets  are  com- 
paratively rare.  Instruments  are  also  met  with  which  might  be 
used  for  a  double  purpose  ;  for  instance,  borers  and  also  piercers. 
There  are  also  round  stones  which  musthavebeen  used  as  hammers; 
it  may,  at  least,  be  noticed  that  they  have  received  repeated  blows. 
Sir  J.  Lubbock  is  of  opinion  that  some  of  these  stones  were 
employed  in  heating  water,  after  they  had  been  made  red-hot  in 
the  fire.  According  to  the  above-named  author,  this  plan  of  pro- 
curing hot  water  is  still  adopted  among  certain  savage  tribes  who 
are  still  ignorant  of  the  art  of  pottery,  and  possess  nothing  but 
wooden  vessels,  which  cannot  be  placed  over  a  fire.* 


Fig.  49. — Chipped  Flint  from  Perigord  (Knife).       Fig.  50. — Chipped  Flint  from  Perigord  (Scraper). 

We  must  also  mention  the  polishers  formed  of  sandstone  or 
some  other  material  with  a  rough  surface.  They  could  only  be 
used  for  polishing  bone  and  horn,  as  the  reindeer  epoch  does  not 
admit  of  instruments  of  polished  stone. 

There  have  also  been  collected  here  and  there  pebbles  of  granite 
or  quartzite  hollowed  out  at  the  centre,  and  more  or  less  perfectly 

*  "  Pre-Historic  Times,"  2nd  ed.  p.  319. 

H 


98  THE  STONE  AGE. 

rounded  on  the  edges.  It  has  been  conjectured  that  these  were 
mortars,  although  their  small  dimensions  scarcely  countenance 
this  hypothesis.  Neither  is  it  probable  that  they  were  used  im- 
pounding seed,  as  fancied  by  M.  de  Vibraye.  Nor  does  the  idea 
which  has  been  entertained  of  their  being  used  for  producing  fire 
seem  to  have  any  sufficient  ground. 

Among  the  most  interesting  specimens  in  the  vast  collection  of 
flints  belonging  to  the  reindeer  epoch  which  have  been  found  in 
the  countries  of  France  and  Belgium,  we  must  mention  the  deli- 
cate and  very  finely-toothed  double-edged  saws.  The  one  we 
here  represent  (Fig.  51)  is  in  the  Archaeological 
Museum  of  Saint-Germain.  It  does  not  measure 
more  than  three-quarters  of  an  inch  in  length, 
and  about  one-tenth  of  an  inch  in  width.  It  was 
found  by  M.  V.  Brun  in  one  of  the  rock-shelters 
at  Bruniquel. 

Saws  of  this  kind  were,  no  doubt,  employed 
for  fashioning  the  antlers  of  the  reindeer,  and 
other  ruminants  that  shed  their  horns.  The 
antler  was  cut  into  on  each  side,  and  the  fracture 
was  finished  by  hand. 

The  objects  of  bone  and  reindeer-horn  found 
in   the   caves    of  Perigord  show  a  still  greater 
Fig  51  —Small  Flint   variety,  and  a  no  less  remarkable  skilfulness  in 
lock  -TLi"  '«   workmanship. 

We  may  mention,  for  instance,  the  arrow  and 
javelin-heads.  Some  are  slender  and  tapering  off  at  both  ends  : 
in  others,  the  base  terminates  in  a  single  or  double  bevel.  Among 
the  latter,  the  greater  part  seem  made  to  fix  in  a  cleft  stick ;  some 
are  ornamented  with  lines  and  hatching  over  their  surface.  Others 
have  notches  in  them,  somewhat  similar  to  an  attempt  at  barbing. 
We  now  come  to  the  barbed  dart-heads,  designated  by  the 
name  of  harpoons.  They  taper  off  considerably  towards  the  top, 
and  are  characterised  by  very  decided  barbs,  shaped  like  hooks, 
and  distributed  sometimes  on  one  side  only,  and  sometimes  on 
both  (Figs.  53,  54).  In  the  latter  case  the  barbs  are  arranged  in 
pairs,  and  are  provided  with  a  small  furrowor  middle  groove,  which, 
according  to  some  naturalists,  was  intended  to  hold  some  subtle 


Fig-  52.— The  Chase  during  the  Reindeer  Epoch.     (Page  98  ) 


EPOCH  OF  MIGRATED  ANIMALS. 


99 


poison.  Like  the  present  race  of  Indians  of  the  American  forests, 
primitive  man  may  possibly  have  poisoned  his  arrows  ;  and  the 
longitudinal  groove,  which  is  noticed  in  so  many  reindeer  arrow- 
heads, may  have  served  to  contain  the  poison. 

We  must  not,  however,  fail  to  state  that  this  opinion  has  been 
abandoned,  since  it  has  been  ascertained  that  the  North  American 
Indians  used  in  former  times  to  hunt  the  bison  with  wooden 
arrows  furnished  with  grooves  or  channels  of  a  similar  character. 
These  channels  are  said  to  have  been  intended  to  give  a  freer 
vent  to  the  flow  of  the  animal's  blood,  which  was  thus,  so  to  speak, 
sucked  out  of  the  wound.  This  may,  therefore,  have  been  the 
intention  of  the  grooves  which  are  noticed  on  the  dart-heads  of 
the  reindeer  epoch,  and  the  idea  of  their  having  been  poisoned 
must  be  dismissed. 


Fig-  53.— Barbed  Arrow  of 
Reindeer  Horn. 


Fig.  54.— Arrow  of  Reindeer  Horn, 
with  double  Barbs. 


These  barbed  darts  or  harpoons  are  still  used  by  the  Esquimaux 
of  the  present  day,  in  pursuing  the  seal.  Such  arrows,  like  those 
of  the  primitive  hordes  of  the  reindeer  epoch  which  are  repre- 
sented above  (Figs.  53,  54),  are  sharply  pointed  and  provided  with 
barbs  ;  they  are  fastened  to  a  string  and  shot  from  a  bow.  The 
Esquimaux  sometimes  attach  an  inflated  bladder  to  the  ex- 
tremity of  the  arrow,  so  that  the  hunter  may  be  apprised  whether 


IOO 


THE  STONE  AGE. 


he  has  hit  his  mark,  or  in  order  to  show  in  what  direction  he 
should  aim  again. 

We  give  here  (Fig.  55)  a  drawing  of  a  fragment  of  bone  found 
in  the  cave  of  Les  Eyzies  (Perigord) ;  a  portion  of  one  of  these 
harpoons  remains  fixed  in  the  bone. 

We  must  assign  to  the  class  of  implements  the  bone  bodkins  or 
stilettos  of  different  sizes,  either  with  or  without  a  handle  (Figs. 


Fig.  55. — Animal  Bone,  pierced  by  an 
Arrow  of  Reindeer  Horn. 


Fig.  56.— Tool  made  of 
Reindeer  Horn,  found 
in  the  Cave  of  Laugerie- 
Basse  (Stiletto?). 


Fig.  57. — Tool  made  of 
Reindeer  Horn,  found  in 
the  Cave  of  Laugerie- 
Basse  (Needle  ?). 


56,  57),  and  also  a  numerous  series  of  needles  found  in  the  caves 
of  Perigord,  some  of  which  are  very  slender  and  elegant,  and  made 
of  bone,  horn,  and  even  ivory.  In  some  of  the  human  settlements 
of  the  reindeer  epoch,  bones  have  been  found,  from  which  long 
splinters  have  been  detached,  fitted  for  the  fabrication  of  needles. 
The  delicate  points  of  flint  have  also  been  found  which  were  used 
to  bore  the  eyes  of  the  needles,  and,  lastly,  the  lumps  of  sandstone 
on  which  the  latter  were  polished. 


EPOCH  OF  MIGRATED  ANIMALS. 


101 


We  must,  likewise,  point  out  the  smoothers,  intended  to  flatten 
down  the  seams  in  the  skins  used  for  garments. 

One  of  the  most  important  instruments  of  this  epoch  is  a  per- 
fect drill  with  a  sharpened  point  and  cutting  edge.  With  this 
flint  point  rapidly  twirled  round,  holes  could  be 
bored  in  any  kind  of  material — bone,  teeth,  horn, 
or  shells.  This  stone  drill  worked  as  well  as  our 
tool  made  of  steel,  according  to  the  statement  of 
certain  naturalists  who  have  tried  the  effect  of  them. 

The  primitive  human  settlement  at  Laugerie- 
Basse  has  furnished  several  specimens  of  an  in- 
strument, the  exact  use  of  which  has  not  been 
ascertained.  They  are  rods,  tapering  off  at  one 
end,  and  hollowed  out  at  the  other  in  the  shape 
of  a  spoon.  M.  Edouard  Lartet  has  propounded 
the  opinion  that  they  were  used  by  the  tribes  of 
this  epoch  as  spoons,  in  order  to  extract  the  mar- 
row from  the  long  bones  of  the  animals  which 
were  used  for  their  food.  M.  Lartet  would  not, 
however,  venture  to  assert  this,  and  adds  :  "  It  is, 
perhaps,  probable  that  our  primitive  forefathers 
would  not  have  taken  so  much  trouble."  Be  this 
as  it  may,  one  of  these  instruments  is  very  re- 
markable for  the  lines  and  ornaments  in  relief 
with  which  it  is  decorated,  testifying  to  the 
existence  in  the  workman  of  some  feeling  of 
symmetry  (Fig.  58). 

In  various  caves — at  Les  Eyzies,  Laugerie- 
Basse,  and  Chaffant,  commune  of  Savigne  (Vienne) 
— whistles  of  a  peculiar  kind  have  been  found  (Fig.  59).  They 
are  made  from  the  first  joint  of  the  foot  of  the  reindeer  or  some 
other  ruminant  of  the  stag  genus.  A  hole  has  been  bored  in  the 
base  of  the  bone,  a  little  in  front  of  the  metatarsal  joint.  If  one 
blows  into  this  hole,  placing  the  lower  lip  in  the  hollow  answering 
to  the  above-named  joint,  a  shrill  sound  is  produced,  similar  to 
that  made  by  blowing  into  a  piped  key.  We  ourselves  have 
h  ad  the  pleasure  of  verifying  the  fact,  at  the  Museum  of  Saint- 
Germain,  that  these  primitive  whistles  act  very  well. 


Fig.  58.— Spoon  of 
Reindeer  Horn. 


102  THE  STONE  AGE. 

The  settlements  at  Perigord  have  also  furnished  a  certain 
number  of  staves  made  of  reindeer  horn  (Figs.  60,  61),  the  proper 
functions  of  which  no  one  has  succeeded  in  properly  explaining. 
They  are  invariably  bored  with  one  or  more  holes  at  the  base, 
and  are  covered  with  designs  to  which  we  shall  hereafter  refer. 
M.  Lartet  has  thought  that  they  were  perhaps  symbols  or  staves 
of  authority. 


1 


Fig.  59.— Knuckle-Bone  ot  Fig.  60.— Staff  of  authority  Fig.  61.— Another  Staff  of 

a  Reindeer's  Foot,  bored  in  Reindeer's  Horn,  found  authority  in  Reindeer's 

with  a  hole  and  used  as  in  the  Cave  of  Perigord.  Horn, 
a  Whistle. 

This  explanation  appears  the  correct  one  when  we  consider  the 
care  with  which  these  batons  were  fashioned.  If  the  hypothesis  of 
their  being  symbols  of  authority  be  adopted,  the  varying  number 
of  the  holes  would  not  be  without  intention  ;  it  might  point  to 
some  kind  of  hierarchy,  the  highest  grade  of  which  corresponded 
to  the  baton  with  the  most  holes.  Thus,  in  the  Chinese  empire, 
the  degree  of  a  mandarin's  authority  is  estimated  by  the  number 
of  buttons  on  his  silk  cap.  And  just  as  in  the  Mussulman  hier- 


EPOCH  OF  MIGRATED  ANIMALS.  103 

.archy  there  were  pachas  of  from  one  to  three  tails,  so  it  may  be 
fancied  that  among  primitive  man  of  the  reindeer  epoch  there 
-were  chiefs  of  from  one  to  three  holes. 

We  have  already  stated  that  in  the  epoch  of  the  great  bear  and 
the  mammoth  the  art  of  manufacturing  a  rough  description  of 
pottery  was,  perhaps,  known  in  Europe.  The  men  of  the  rein- 
deer epoch  made,  however,  but  little  progress  in  this  respect. 
Nevertheless,  if  certain  relics  really  belong  to  this  period,  they 
may  have  known  how  to  make  rough  vessels,  formed  of  clay, 
mixed  with  sand,  and  hardened  by  the  action  of  fire.  This 
primitive  art  was,  as  yet,  anything  but  generally  adopted  ;  for  we 
rarely  find  debris  of  pottery  in  close  contiguity  with  other  remains 
of  the  reindeer  epoch. 

The  Archaeological  Museum  of  Saint-Germain  is  in  possession 
•  of  a  hollow  vessel,  a  natural  geode,  very  large  and  very  thick 


Fig.  62.— A  Geode,  used  as  a  cooking  Vessel  (?),  found  in  the  Cave  of  La  Madeleine  (Perigord). 

(Fig.  62).  It  was  found  in  the  cave  of  La  Madeleine  (department 
of  Dordogne);  on  one  side  it  has  evidently  been  subjected  to  the 
action  of  fire,  and  may  therefore  be  presumed  to  have  been  used 
as  a  large  vessel  for  culinary  purposes. 

In  a  cave  at  Furfooz,  near  Dinant  in  Belgium,  to  which  we  shall 
subsequently  refer,  M.  Edouard  Dupont  found,  intermingled  with 
human  bones,  an  urn,  or  specimen  of  rough  pottery,  which  is 
perhaps  one  of  the  most  ancient  monuments  of  the  ceramic  art  as 
practised  by  our  primitive  ancestors.  This  urn  (Fig.  63)  was  partly 
broken  ;  by  the  care  of  M.  Hauzeur  it  has  been  put  together 
again,  as  we  represent  it  from  the  work  of  M.  le  Hon.* 

*   "L'Homme  Fossile."     Brussels,  1868  (p.  71). 


104  THE  STONE  AGE. 

It  is  in  the  reindeer  epoch  that  we  find  the  earliest  traces  of 
any  artistic  feeling  manifested  in  man. 

It  is  a  circumstance  well  worthy  of  remark,  that  this  feeling 
appears  to  have  been  the  peculiar  attribute  of  the  tribes  which 
inhabited  the  south-west  of  the  present  France;  the  departments 
of  Dordogne,  Vienne,  Charente,  Tarn-et-Garonne,  and  Ariege  are,, 
in  fact,  the  only  localities  where  designs  and  carvings  representing 
organised  beings  have  been  discovered.  The  departments  in  the 
east  have  not  furnished  anything  of  a  similar  character,  any 
more  than  Belgium,  which  has  been  so  thoroughly  explored  by 
M.  Edouard  Dupont,  or  Wurtemburg,  where  M.  Frass  has  lately 
described  various  settlements  of  this  primitive  epoch. 


Fig.  63. — Earthen  Vase  found  in  the  Cave  of  Furfooz  (Belgium). 

It  is  not  sufficient  to  allege,  in  order  to  explain  this  singular 
circumstance,  that  the  caves  in  the  south  of  France  belong  to  a 
later  period  of  the  reindeer  epoch,  and  that  the  others  go  back  to 
the  earliest  commencement  of  the  same  age.  Apart  from  the  fact 
that  this  assertion  is  in  no  way  proved,  a  complete  and  ready 
answer  is  involved  in  the  well-verified  circumstance,  that  even  in 
later  ages — in  the  polished  stone,  and  even  in  the  bronze  epoch — 
no  representation  of  an  animal  or  plant  is  found  to  have  been  exe- 
cuted in  these  localities.  No  specimen  of  the  kind  has,  in  fact, 
been  found  in  the  kitchen-middens  of  Denmark,  or  in  the  lacus- 
trine settlements  of  the  Stone  Age,  or  even  of  the  Bronze  Age. 

It  must,  then,  be  admitted  that  the  tribes  which  were  scattered 


EPOCH  OF  MIGRATED  ANIMALS.  105 

over  those  portions  of  the  European  continent  which  now  corre- 
spond to  the  south-west  of  France,  possessed  a  special  talent  in 
the  art  of  design.  There  is,  moreover,  nothing  unreasonable  in 
such  a  supposition.  An  artistic  feeling  is  not  always  the  off- 
spring of  civilisation,  it  is  rather  a  gift  of  nature.  It  may  mani- 
fest its  existence  in  the  most  barbarous  ages,  and  may  make  its 
influence  more  deeply  felt  in  nations  which  are  behindhand  in 
respect  to  general  progress  than  in  others  which  are  much  further 
advanced  in  civilisation. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  rudiments  of  engraving  and 
sculpture  of  which  we  are  about  to  take  a  view,  testify  to  faculties 
of  an  essentially  artistic  character.  Shapes  are  so  well  imitated, 
movements  are  so  thoroughly  caught,  as  it  were,  in  the  sudden  fact 
of  action,  that  it  is  almost  always  possible  to  recognise  the  object 
which  the  ancient  workman  desired  to  represent,  although  he  had 
at  his  disposal  nothing  but  the  rudest  instruments  for  executing  his 
work.  A  splinter  of  flint  was  his  sole  graving-tool,  a  piece  of  rein- 
deer horn,  or  a  flake  of  slate  or  ivory,  was  the  only  plate  on  which 
primitive  man  could  stamp  his  reproductions  of  animated  nature. 

Perhaps  they  drew  on  stone  or  horn  with  lumps  of  red  chalk  or 
ochre,  for  both  these  substances  have  been  found  in  the  caves  of 
primitive  man.  Perhaps,  too,  as  is  the  case  with  modern  savages, 
the  ochre  and  red  chalk  were  used  besides  for  painting  or  tattooing 
his  body.  When  the  design  was  thus  executed  on  stone  or  horn, 
it  was  afterwards  engraved  with  the  point  of  some  flint  instrument. 

Those  persons  who  have  attentively  examined  the  interesting 
gallery  of  the  Histoire  du  Travail  in  the  International  Exposition 
of  1867,  must  have  remarked  a  magnificent  collection  of  these 
artistic  productions  of  primeval  ages.  There  were  no  less  than 
fifty-one  specimens,  which  were  exhibited  by  several  collectors,  and 
were  for  the  most  part  extremely  curious.  In  his  interesting  work, 
"Promenades  Prehistoriques  a  1'Exposition  Universelle,"  M.Gabriel 
de  Mortillet  has  carefully  described  these  objects.  In  endeavouring 
to  obtain  some  knowledge  of  them,  we  shall  take  as  our  guide  the 
learned  curator  of  the  Archaeological  Museum  of  Saint-Germain. 

We  have,  in  the  first  place,  various  representations  of  the 
mammoth,  which  was  still  in  existence  at  the  commencement  of 
the  reindeer  epoch. 


io6 


THE  STONE  AGE. 


The  first  (Fig.  64)  is  an  outline  sketch,  drawn  on  a  slab  of 
ivory,  from  the  cave  of  La  Madeleine.  When  MM.  Lartet  and 
Christy  found  it,  it  was  broken  into  five  pieces,  which  they 
managed  to  put  together  very  accurately.  The  small  eye  and 
the  curved  tusks  of  the  animal  may  be  perfectly  distinguished,  as 
well  as  its  huge  trunk,  and  even  its  abundant  mane,  the  latter 
proving  that  it  is  really  the  mammoth — that  is,  the  fossil — and 
not  the  present  species  of  elephant. 

The  second  figure  is  an  entire  mammoth,  graven  on  a  fragment 
of  reindeer  horn,  from  the  rock-shelters  of  Bruniquel,  and  belongs 
to  M.  Peccadeau  de  1'Isle.  This  figure  forms  the  hilt  of  a  poniard, 
the  blade  of  which  springs  from  the  front  part  of  the  animal.  It 
may  be  recognised  to  be  the  mammoth  by  its  trunk,  its  wide  flat 
feet,  and  especially  by  its  erect  tail,  ending  in  a  bunch  of  hair. 


Fig.  64. — Sketch  of  a  Mammoth,  graven  on  a  Slab  of  Ivory. 

In  point  of  fact,  the  present  species  of  elephant  never  sets  up  the 
tail,  and  has  no  bunch  of  hair  at  the  end  of  it 

A  third  object  brought  from  the  pre-historic  station  of  Laugerie- 
Basse  (M.  de  Vibraye's  collection)  is  the  lower  end  of  a  staff  of 
authority,  carved  in  the  form  of  a  mammoth's  head.  The  promi- 
nent forehead,  and  the  body  of  the  animal  stretching  along  the 
base  of  the  staff,  may  both  be  very  distinctly  seen. 

On  another  fragment  of  a  staff  of  authority,  found  at  Bruniquel 
by  M.  V.  Brun,  the  cave-lion  (Felis  spclaa]  is  carved  with  great 
clearness.  The  head,  in  particular,  is  perfectly  represented. 

Representations  of  reindeer,  either  carved  or  scratched  on  stone 
or  horn,  are  very  common  ;  we  mention  the  following  : — 

In  the  first  place  the  hilt  of  a  dagger  in  reindeer's  horn 
(Fig.  65)  of  the  same  type  as  that  shaped  in  the  form  of  a  mam- 
moth. This  specimen  is  remarkable,  because  the  artist  has  most 


EPOCH  OF  MIGRATED  ANIMALS.  107 

skilfully  adapted  the  shape  of  the  animal  to  the  purpose  for  which 
the  instrument  was  intended.  The  hilt  represents  a  reindeer, 
which  is  carved  out  as  if  lying  in  a  very  peculiar  position  ;  the 
hind  legs  are  stretched  along  the  blade,  and  the  front  legs  are 
doubled  back  under  the  belly,  so  as  not  to  hurt  the  hand  of  any 
one  holding  the  dagger  ;  lastly,  the  head  is  thrown  back,  the 
muzzle  turned  upwards,  and  the  horns  flattened  down  so  as  not 
to  interfere  with  the  grasp. 

This  is,  at  all  events,  nothing  but  a  rough  sketch.  The  same 
remark,  however,  does  not  apply  to  two  ivory  daggers  found  at 
Bruniquel  by  M.  Peccadeau  de  1'Isle.  These  objects  are  very 
artistically  executed,  and  are  the  most  finished  specimens  that 
have  been  found  up  to  the  present  time.  Both  of  them  represent 
a  reindeer  with  the  head  thrown  back  as  in  the  preceding  plate ; 


Fig.  65. — Hilt  of  a  Dagger,  carved  in  the  shape  of  a  Reindeer. 

but  whilst  in  one  dagger  the  blade  springs  from  the  hinder  part 
of  the  body,  in  the  same  way  as  in  the  rough-hewn  horn,  in  the 
other  it  proceeds  from  the  front  of  the  body,  between  the  head 
and  the  forelegs.  The  hind  legs  are  stretched  out  and  meet 
again  at  the  feet,  thus  forming  a  hole  between  them,  which  was 
probably  used  as  a  ring  on  which  to  suspend  the  dagger. 

We  must  not  omit  to  mention  a  slab  of  slate,  on  which  is  drawn 
in  outline  a  reindeer  fight.  It  was  found  at  Laugerie-Basse  by 
M.  de  Vibraye.  The  artist  has  endeavoured  to  portray  one  of 
those  furious  contests  in  which  the  male  reindeer  engages  during 
the  rutting  season,  in  order  to  obtain  possession  of  the  females  ; 
he  has  executed  his  design  in  a  spirited  manner,  marked  by  a 
certain  naivete. 

There  are  a  good  many  other  fragments  on  which  reindeer  are 
either  drawn  or  carved ;  we  shall  not  dwell  upon  them,  but  add 


io8 


THE  STONE  AGE. 


a  few  remarks  as  to  several  specimens  on  which  are  representa- 
tions of  the  stag,  the  horse,  the  bison,  the  ibex,  &c. 

A  representation  of  a  stag  (Fig.  66)  is  drawn  on  a  fragment  of 
stag's  horn  found  in  the  cave  of  La  Madeleine  by  MM.  Lartet  and 
Christy.  The  shape  of  the  antlers,  which  are  very  different  to  those 
of  the  reindeer,  leave  no  doubt  as  to  the  identity  of  the  animal. 


Fig.  66. — Representation  of  a  Stag,  drawn  on  a  Stag's  Horn. 

The  ox  and  the  bison  are  represented  in  various  fashions.  We 
will  mention  here  a  carved  head  which  was  found  in  the  cave  of 
Laugerie-Basse  by  M.  de  Vibraye.  It  forms  the  base  of  a  staff 
of  authority. 

We  must,  doubtless,  class  under  the  same  category  a  fragment 
of  reindeer's  horn,  found  at  Laugerie-Basse,  on  which  the  hind- 
quarters of  some  large  herbivorous  animal  are  sketched  out  with 


Fig.  67. — Representation  of  some  large  herbivorous  Animal  on  a  Fragment  of  Reindeer's  Horn. 

a  bold  and  practised  touch  (Fig.  67).  Various  indications  have 
led  M.  Lartet  to  think  that  the  artist  has  not  endeavoured  to  re- 
present a  horse,  as  was  at  first  imagined,  but  a  bison  of  rather  a 
slender  shape.  Unfortunately  the  fragment  is  broken  at  the  exact 
spot  where  the  bushy  mane  should  begin,  which  characterises  the 
species  of  the  bison  sub-genus. 


Fig.  63. — Arts  of  Drawing  and  Sculpture  during  the  Reindeer  Epoch.     (Page  108.) 


EPOCH  OF  MIGRATED  ANIMALS. 


109 


In  the  same  locality  another  fragment  of  reindeer's  horn  was 
found,  on  which  some  horned  animal  is  depicted  (Fig.  69),  which 
appears  to  be  an  ibex,  if  we  may  judge  by  the  lines  under  the 
<;hin,  which  seem  to  indicate  a  beard. 


Fig.  69. — Representation  of  an  Animal,  sketched  on  a  Fragment  of  Reindeer's  Horn. 

In  the  cave  of  Les  Eyzies,  in  the  department  of  Dordogne,  MM. 
Lartet  and  Christy  came  upon  two  slabs  of  quartziferous  schist,  on 
l>oth  of  which  are  scratched  animal  forms  which  are  deficient  in 
.any  special  characteristics.  In  one  (Fig.  70),  some  have  fancied 


Fig.  70. — Fragment  of  a  Slab  of  Schist,  bearing  the  representation  of  some  Animal,  and  found  in 
the  Cave  of  Les  Eyzies. 

they  could  recognise  the  elk ;  but,  as  the  front  part  only  of  the 
other  has  been  preserved,  it  is  almost  impossible  to  determine 
what  mammiferous  animal  it  is  intended  to  represent.  An  indis- 
tinct trace  of  horns  seems  to  indicate  a  herbivorous  animal. 


no 


THE  STONE  AGE. 


\\ 


On  each  side  of  a  staff  of  authority  made  of  reindeer's  horn, 
found  by  MM.  Lartet  and  Christy  in  the  cave  of  the  Madeleine, 
may  be  noticed  three  horses  in  demi-relief,  which  are  very  easily 
recognisable. 

On  a  carved  bone,  found  at  Bruniquel  by  M.  de  Lastic,  the  head 
of  a  reindeer  and  that  of  a  horse  are  drawn  in  outline  side  by 
side ;  the  characteristics  of  both  animals  are  well  maintained. 
Lastly,  we  may  name  a  round  shaft  formed  of  reindeer's  horn 
(Fig.  71),  found  at  Laugerie-Basse  by  MM.  Lartet 
and  Christy,  on  which  is  carved  an  animal's  head, 
with  ears  of  a  considerable  length  laid  back  upon 
the  head.     It  is  not  easy  to  determine  for  what 
purpose  this  shaft  was  intended  ;  one  end  being 
pointed  and  provided  with  a  lateral  hook.     It 
was  perhaps  used  as  a  harpoon. 

Representations  of  birds  are  more  uncommon 
than  those  of  mammals. 

There  are,  on  the  other  hand,  a  good  many 
rough  delineations  of  fish,  principally  on  the  so- 
called  wands  of  authority,  on  which  numbers  may 
often  be  noticed  following  one  another  in  a  series. 
We  have  one  delineation  of  a  fish,  skilfully  drawn 
on  a  fragment  of  the  lower  jaw-bone  of  a  rein- 
deer, which  was  found  at  Laugerie-Basse. 

Also  in  the  cave  of  La  Vache  (Ariege),   M. 
Garrigou  found  a  fragment  of  bone,  on   which 
there  is  a  clever  design  of  a  fish. 
Very  few  representations  of  reptiles  have  come  to  light,  and 
those  found  are  in  general  badly  executed.     We  must,  however, 
make  an  exception  in  favour  of  the  figure  of  a  tadpole,  scratched 
out  on  an  arrow-head,  found  in  the  cave  of  the  Madeleine. 

Designs  representing  flowers  are  very  rare ;  in  the  Galerie  du 
Travail,  at  the  Exposition,  only  three  specimens  are  exhibited  ; 
they  came  from  La  Madeleine  and  Laugerie-Basse,  and  were  all 
three  graven  on  spear-heads. 

But  did  the  men  of  the  reindeer  epoch  make  no  attempts  to 
portray  their  own  personal  appearance  ?  Have  not  the  excava- 
tions dug  in  the  settlements  of  primitive  man,  found  in  Perigord, 


Fig.  71. — A  kind  of 
Harpoon  of  Rein- 
deer's Horn,  carved 


Animal's 


ape  o 
Head. 


EPOCH  OF  MIGRATED  ANIMALS,  in 

ever  brought  to  light  any  imitation  of  the  human  form?  Nothing 
could  exceed  the  interest  of  such  a  discovery.  Research  has  not 
been  entirely  fruitless  in  this  respect,  and  it  is  hoped  that  the  first 
attempt  in  the  art  of  statuary  of  this  primitive  people  may  yet  be 
discovered.  In  the  cave  of  Laugerie-Basse,  M.  de  Vibraye  found 
a  little  ivory  statuette,  which  he  takes  to  be  a  kind  of  idol  of  an 
indecent  character.  The  head  and  legs,  as  well  as  the  arms,  are 
broken  off. 

Another  human  figure  (Fig.  72),  which,  like  the  preceding  one, 
is  long  and  lean,  is  graven  on  a  staff  of  authority,  a  fragment  of 
which  was  found  in  the  cave  of  La  Madeleine  by  MM.  Lartet  and 
Christy.  The  man  is  represented  standing  between  two  horses' 
heads,  and  by  the  side  of  a  long  serpent  or  fish/having  the  appear- 
ance of  an  eel.  On  the  reverse  side  of  the  same  baton,  which  is 
not  given  in  the  figure,  the  heads  of  two  bisons  are  represented. 


Fig.  72. — Staff  of  Authority,  on  which  are  graven  representations  of  a  Man,  two  Horses,  and  a  Fish. 

On  a  fragment  of  a  spear-head,  found  in  the  same  settlement  of 
Laugerie-Basse,  there  is  a  series  of  human  hands,  provided  with 
four  fingers  only,  represented  in  demi-relief.  M .  Lartet  has  called 
attention  to  the  fact,  that  certain  savage  tribes  still  depict  the 
hand  without  noticing  the  thumb. 

In  Fig.  39,  which  represents  man  during  the  reindeer  epoch, 
such  as  we  must  suppose  him  tohave  been  from  the  sum  total  of  our 
present  stock  of  information  on  the  point,  we  see  a  man  clothed  in 
garments  sewn  with  a  needle,  carrying  as  his  chief  weapon  the 
jaw-bone  of  a  bear  armed  with  its  sharp  fang,  and  also  provided 
with  his  flint  hatchet  or  knife.  Close  to  him  is  a  woman  seated, 
arrayed  in  all  the  personal  ornaments  which  are  known  to  have 
been  peculiar  to  this  epoch. 

The  question  now  arises,  what  were  the  characteristics  of  man  \ 
during  the  reindeer  epoch,  with  regard  to  his  physical  organisation  >J 


ii2  THE  STONE  AGE. 

We  know  a  little  of  some  of  the  broader  features  of  his  physiog- 
nomy from  studying  the  objects  found  in  the  Belgian  bone-caves, 
of  which  we  have  spoken  in  the  introduction  to  this  work.  These 
caves  were  explored  by  M.  Edouard  Dupont,  assisted  by  M.  Van 
Beneden,  a  Belgian  palaeontologist  and  anatomist.  The  excava- 
tions in  question  were  ordered  by  King  Leopold's  Government, 
which  supplied  the  funds  necessary  for  extending  them  as  far  as 
possible.  The  three  caves,  all  situated  in  the  valley  of  the  Lesse, 
are  the  Trou  des  Nutons,  the  Trou  du  Frontal,  at  Furfooz,  near 
Dinant,  and  the  Caverne  de  Chaleux,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the 
town  from  which  its  name  is  derived. 

The  Trou  des  Nutons  and  the  Trou  du  Frontal  have  been  com- 
pletely thrown  into  confusion  by  a  violent  inroad  of  water ;  for 
the  debris  that  they  contained  were  intermingled  in  an  almost  in- 
credible confusion  with  a  quantity  of  earthy  matter  and  calcareous 
rocks,  which  had  been  drifted  in  by  the  inundation. 

In  the  Trou  des  Nutons,  which  is  situated  about  1 64  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  Lesse,  M.  Van  Beneden  recognised  a  great  many 
bones  of  the  reindeer,  the  urus,  and  many  other  species  which  are 
not  yet  extinct.  These  bones  were  indiscriminately  mixed  up  with 
bones  and  horns  of  the  reindeer  carved  into  different  shapes  ; 
knuckle-bones  of  the  goat  polished  on  both  sides ;  a  whistle  made 
from  the  tibia  of  a  goat,  from  which  sounds  could  still  be  produced ; 
fragments  of  very  coarse  pottery;  some  remains  of  fire-hearths,  &c. 

The  Trou  du  Frontal  was  thus  named  by  M.  Edouard  Dupont, 
from  the  fact  of  a  human  frontal-bone  having  been  found  there  on 
the  day  that  the  excavations  commenced.  This  was  not  the  only 
discovery  of  the  kind  that  was  to  be  made.  Ere  long  they  fell  in 
with  a  great  quantity  of  human  bones,  intermixed  with  a  consider- 
able number  of  the  bones  of  reindeer  and  other  animals,  as  well  as 
implements  of  all  kinds.  M.  Van  Beneden  ascertained  that  the 
bones  must  have  belonged  to  thirteen  persons  of  various  ages  ; 
some  of  them  are  the  bones  of  infants  scarcely  a  year  old.  Among 
them  were  found  two  perfect  skulls  which  are  in  good  preserva- 
tion ;  these  remains  are  also  very  valuable,  because  they  afford 
data  from  which  deductions  may  be  drawn  as  to  the  cranial  con- 
formation of  the  primitive  inhabitants  of  the  banks  of  the  Lesse. 

M.  Edouard  Dupont  is  of  opinion  that  this  cave  was  used  as  a 


EPOCH  OF  MIGRATED  ANIMALS.  113 

burial-place.  It  is,  in  fact,  very  probable  that  such  was  the  pur- 
pose for  which  it  was  intended  ;  for  a  large  flag-stone  was  found 
in  it,  which  was  probably  used  to  close  up  the  mouth  of  the  cave, 
and  to  shield  the  dead  bodies  from  profanation.  If  this  be  the 
case,  the  animal  bones  which  were  scattered  around  are  the  re- 
mains of  the  funeral  banquets  which  it  was  the  custom  to  provide 
during  the  epoch  of  the  great  bear  and  the  mammoth. 

It  is  interesting  to  establish  the  existence  of  such  a  similarity 
between  the  customs  of  men  who  were  separated  by  vast  tracts  of 
land  and  an  interval  of  many  thousands  of  years. 

Immediately  above  the  Trou  du  Frontal  there  is  a  cave  called 
Trou  Rosette,  in  which  the  bones  of  three  persons  of  various  ages 
were  found  intermingled  with  the  bones  of  reindeer  and  beavers  ; 
fragments  of  a  blackish  kind  of  pottery  were  also  found  there, 
which  were  hollowed  out  in  rough  grooves  by  way  of  ornamenta- 
tion, and  merely  hardened  in  the  fire.  M.  Dupont  is  of  opinion 
that  the  three  men  whose  remains  were  discovered  were  crushed 
to  death  by  masses  of  rock  at  the  time  of  the  great  inundation, 
traces  of  which  may  still  be  seen  in  the  valley  of  the  Lesse. 

By  the  falling  in  of  its  roof,  which  buried  under  a  mass  of 
rubbish  all  the  objects  which  were  contained  in  it  at  the  time  of 
the  catastrophe,  and  thus  kept  them  in  their  places,  the  cave  of 
Chaleux  escaped  the  complete  disturbance  with  which  the  above- 
mentioned  caverns  were  visited.  The  bones  of  mammals,  of  birds, 
and  of  fish  were  found  there  ;  also  some  carved  bones  and  horns 
of  the  reindeer,  some  fossil  shells,  which,  as  we  have  before 
observed,  came  from  Champagne,  and  were  used  as  ornaments  ; 
lastly,  and  chiefly,  wrought  flints  numbering  at  least  30,000.  In 
the  hearth,  which  was  placed  in  the  middle  of  the  cave,  a  stone 
was  discovered  with  certain  signs  on  it,  which,  up  to  the  present 
time,  have  remained  unexplained.  M.  Dupont,  as  we  have  pre- 
viously stated,  collected  in  the  immediate  vicinity  about  twenty- 
two  pounds'  weight  of  the  bones  of  the  water-rat  either  scorched 
or  roasted  ;  this  proves  that  when  a  more  noble  and  substantial 
food  failed  them,  the  primitive  inhabitants  of  this  country  were 
able  to  content  themselves  with  these  small  and  unsavoury  rodents. 

The  two  skulls  which  were  found  at  Furfooz  have  been  care- 
fully examined  by  MM.  Van  Beneden  and  Pruner-Bey,  who  are 

I 


ii4  THE  STONE  AGE. 

both  great  authorities  on  the  subject  of  anthropology.  These 
skulls  present  considerable  discrepancies,  but  Pruner-Be  is  of 
opinion  that  they  are  heads  of  a  male  and  female  of  the  same  race. 
In  order  to  justify  his  hypothesis  the  learned  anthropologist  says, 
that  there  is  often  more  difference  between  the  skulls  of  the  two 
sexes  of  the  same  race,  than  between  the  skulls  of  the  same  sex 
belonging  to  two  distinct  races. 

One  of  these  skulls  is  distinguished  by  a  projecting  jaw ;  the 
other,  which  is  represented  in  Fig.  73,  has  jaws  even  with  the  facial 
outline.  The  prominent  jaw  of  the  first,  which  is  the  indication 
of  a  degraded  race  (like  that  of  the  negro),  does  not  prevent  its 
having  a  higher  forehead  and  a  more  capacious  cranium  than  the 
other  skull.  We  find  here  an  actual  intermingling  of  the  charac- 


73-—  Skull  found  at  Furfooz,  by  M.  Edouard  Dupont. 


teristics  which  belong  to  the  inferior  races  with  those  peculiar  to 
the  Caucasian  race,  which  is  considered  to  be  the  most  exalted 
,  type  of  the  human  species. 

'"According  to  Pruner-Bey,  the  Belgian  people  during  the  rein- 
deer epoch  were  a  race  of  small  stature  but  very  sturdy  ;  the  face 
was  lozenge-shaped,  and  the  whole  skull  had  the  appearance  of  a 
pyramid.  This  race  of  a  Turanian  or  Mongolian  origin  was  the 
same  as  the  Ligurian  or  Iberian  race,  which  still  exists  in  the  north 
of  Italy  (Gulf  of  Genoa)  and  in  the  Pyrenees  (Basque  districts). 

These  conclusions  must  be  accepted  with  the  highest  degree  of 
caution,  for  they  do  not  agree  with  the  opinions  of  all  anthropo- 
logists. M.  Broca  is  of  opinion  that  the  Basques  have  sprung  from 
a  North  African  race,  which  spread  over  Europe  at  a  time  when 
an  isthmus  existed  where  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar  are  now  situated. 


EPOCH  OF  MIGRATED  ANIMALS.  115 

This  idea  is  only  reasonable  ;  for  certain  facts  prove  that  Europe 
and  Africa  were  formerly  connected  by  a  neck  of  land  ;  this 
was  afterwards  submerged,  at  the  spot  where  the  Straits  of 
Gibraltar  now  exist,  bringing  about  the  disjunction  of  Europe 
and  Africa.  It  will  be  sufficient  proof,  if  we  point  to  the  analogy 
subsisting  between  the  fauna  of  the  two  countries,  which  is 
established  by  the  existence  of  a  number  of  wild  monkeys  which, 
even  in  the  present  day,  inhabit  this  arid  rock,  and  are  also  to  be 
met  with  on  the  opposite  African  shore. 

In  the  interesting  excavations  which  were  made  in  the  rock- 
shelters  at  Bruniquel,  M.  V.  Brun  found  a  quantity  of  human 
bones,  and  particularly  two  skulls — one  that  of  an  old  man,  the 
other  that  of  an  adult.  We  here  (Fig.  74)  give  a  representation 


Fig.  74. — Skull  of  an  old  Man,  found  in  a  Rock-shelter  at  Bruniquel. 

of  the  old  man's  skull  taken  from  a  photograph  which  M.  V.  Brun 
has  been  kind  enough  to  send  us. 

If  we  measure  the  facial  angle  of  this  skull,  we  shall  find  that 
it  does  not  differ  from  the  skulls  of  the  men  who  at  the  present 
time  inhabit  the  same  climates.  From  this  fact,  it  may  be  gathered 
how  mistaken  the  idea  may  be  which  looks  upon  primitive  man, 
or  the  man  of  the  stone  epoch,  as  a  being  essentially  different  from 
the  men  of  the  present  day.  The  phrase  fossil  man,  we  must 
again  repeat,  should  be  expunged  from  the  vocabulary  of  science  ; 
we  should  thus  harmonise  better  with  established  facts,  and 
should  also  do  away  with  a  misunderstanding  which  is  highly 
detrimental  to  the  investigations  into  the  origin  of  man. 

In  concluding  this  account  of  the  manners  and  customs  of  man, 
during  the  reindeer  epoch,  we  must  say  a  few  words  as  to  the 


u6  THE  STONE  AGE. 

funeral  rites  of  this  time,  or  rather,  the  mode  of  burial  peculiar  to 
this  period  of  primitive  man's  history. 

Those  who  lived  in  caves  buried  their  dead  in  caves.  It  is  also 
a  fact  to  be  remarked,  that  man  often  uses  the  same  type  for 
both  his  burial-places  and  dwelling-places. 

The  burial-places  of  the  Tartars  of  Kasan,  says  M.  Nilsson,  are 
exact  likenesses,  on  a  small  scale,  of  their  dwelling-places,  and 
like  them,  are  constructed  of  beams  placed  close  to  one  another. 
A  Circassian  burial-place  is  perfectly  similar  to  a  Circassian  dwell- 
ing. The  tombs  of  the  Karaite  Jews,  in  the  valley  of  Jehosha- 
phat,  resemble  their  houses  and  places  of  worship,  and  the  Neo- 
Grecian  tombs,  in  the  Crimea,  are  likewise  imitations  of  their 
churches.* 

We  shall  not,  therefore,  be  surprised  to  learn  that  man  during 
the  reindeer  epoch  buried  his  dead  in  caves,  just  in  the  same  way 
as  was  done  by  his  ancestors  during  the  epoch  of  the  great  bear 
and  the  mammoth  ;  that  is  to  say,  the  dead  were  interred  in  the 
same  kind  of  caves  as  those  which  were  then  generally  used  as 
places  of  abode. 

Fig.  75  represents  a  funeral  ceremonial  during  the  reindeer 
epoch. 

The  corpse  is  borne  on  a  litter  of  boughs,  a  practice  which  is 
still  in  use  among  some  modern  savages.  Men  provided  with 
torches,  that  is,  branches  of  resinous  trees,  preceded  the  funeral 
procession,  in  order  to  light  the  interior  of  the  cavern.  The  cave 
is  open,  ready  to  receive  the  corpse,  and  it  will  be  closed  again 
after  it  is  deposited  there.  The  weapons,  ornaments,  and  utensils 
which  he  had  prized  during  his  lifetime  are  brought  in  to  be  laid 
by  the  side  of  the  dead. 

We  will  sum  up  the  principal  facts  which  we  have  laid  before 
our  readers  in  this  account  of  the  condition  of  mankind  during 
the  reindeer  epoch,  by  quoting  an  eloquent  passage  from  a  report 
addressed  by  M.  Edouard  Dupont  to  the  Belgian  Minister  of  the 
Interior,  on  the  excavations  carried  on  by  this  eminent  Belgian 
geologist  in  the  caves  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Furfooz. 

"  The  data  obtained  from  the  fossils  of  Chaleux,  together  with 

*  "  The  Primitive  Inhabitants  of  Scandinavia,"  by  Sven  Nilsson,  p.  155.  London, 
1868. 


EPOCH  OF  MIGRATED  ANIMALS.  117 

those  which  have  been  met  with  in  the  caves  of  Furfooz,  present 
us,"  says  M.  Dupont,  "  with  a  striking  picture  of  the  primitive 
ages  of  mankind  in  Belgium. 

"These  ancient  tribes  and  all  their  customs,  after  having  been 
buried  in  oblivion  for  thousands  and  thousands  of  years,  are  again 
vividly  brought  before  our  eyes ;  and,  like  the  wondrous  bird, 
which,  in  its  ashes,  found  a  new  source  of  life,  antiquity  lives 
again  in  the  relics  of  its  former  existence. 

"  We  may  almost  fancy  that  we  can  see  them  in  their  dark  and 
subterranean  retreats,  crouching  round  their  hearths,  and  skilfully 
and  patiently  chipping  out  their  flint  instruments  and  shaping 
their  reindeer-horn  tools,  in  the  midst  of  all  the  pestilential 
emanations  arising  from  the  various  animal  remains  which  their 
carelessness  has  allowed  to  remain  in  their  dwellings.  Skins  of 
wild  beasts  are  stripped  of  their  hair,  and,  by  the  aid  of  flint 
needles,  are  converted  into  garments.  In  our  mind's  eye,  we  may 
see  them  engaged  in  the  chase,  and  hunting  wild  animals — their 
only  weapons  being  darts  and  spears,  the  fatal  points  of  which 
are  formed  of  nothing  but  a  splinter  of  flint. 

"Again,  we  are  present  at  their  feasts,  in  which,  during  the 
period  when  their  hunting  has  been  fortunate,  a  horse,  a  bear,  or 
a  reindeer  becomes  the  more  noble  substitute  for  the  tainted  flesh 
of  the  rat,  their  sole  resource  in  the  time  of  famine. 

"  Now,  we  see  them  trafficking  with  the  tribes  inhabiting  the 
region  now  called  France,  and  procuring  the  jet  and  fossil  shells 
with  which  they  love  to  adorn  themselves,  and  the  flint  which  is 
to  them  so  precious  a  material.  On  one  side  they  are  picking  up 
the  fluor  spar,  the  colour  of  which  is  pleasing  to  their  eyes ;  on 
the  other,  they  are  digging  out  the  great  slabs  of  sandstone 
which  are  to  be  placed  as  hearthstones  round  their  fire. 

"  But,  alas  !  inauspicious  days  arrive,  and  certainly  misfortune 
does  not  seem  to  spare  them.  A  falling  in  of  the  roof  of  their  cave 
drives  them  out  of  their  chief  dwelling-place.  The  objects  of  their 
worship,  their  weapons,  and  their  utensils — all  are  buried  there, 
and  they  are  forced  to  fly  and  take  up  their  abode  in  another  spot. 

"  The  ravages  of  death  break  in  upon  them  ;  how  great  are  the 
cares  which  are  now  lavished  upon  those  whom  they  have  lost ! 
They  bear  the  corpse  into  its  cavernous  sepulchre  ;  some  weapons, 


iiS  THE  STONE  AGE. 

an  amulet,  and  perhaps  an  urn,  form  the  whole  of  the  funeral 
furniture.  A  slab  of  stone  prevents  the  inroad  of  wild  beasts. 
Then  begins  the  funeral  banquet,  celebrated  close  by  the  abode  of 
the  dead  :  a  fire  is  lighted,  great  animals  are  cut  up,  and  portions 
of  their  smoking  flesh  are  distributed  to  each.  How  strange  the 
ceremonies  that  must  then  have  taken  place ! — ceremonies  like 
those  told  us  of  the  savages  of  the  Indian  and  African  solitudes. 
Imagination  may  easily  depict  the  songs,  the  dances,  and  the 
invocations,  but  science  is  powerless  to  call  them  into  life. 

"  The  sepulchre  is  often  reopened ;  little  children  and  adults 
came  in  turn  to  take  their  places  in  the  gloomy  cave.  Thirteen 
times  the  same  ceremonial  occurs,  and  thirteen  times  the  slab  is 
moved  to  admit  the  corpses. 

"  But  the  end  of  this  primitive  age  is  at  last  come.  Torrents  of 
water  break  in  upon  the  country.  Its  inhabitants,  driven  from 
their  abodes,  in  vain  take  refuge  on  the  lofty  mountain  summits. 
Death  at  last  overtakes  them,  and  a  dark  cavern  is  the  tomb 
of  the  wretched  beings,  who,  at  Furfooz,  were  witnesses  of  this 
immense  catastrophe. 

"  Nothing  is  respected  by  the  terrible  element.  The  sepulchre, 
the  object  of  such  care  on  the  part  of  the  artless  tribe,  is  burst 
open  before  the  torrent,  and  the  bones  of  the  dead  bodies,  dis- 
jointed by  the  water,  are  dispersed  into  the  midst  of  the  crumb- 
ling earth  and  stones.  Their  former  habitation  alone  is  exempt 
from  this  common  destruction,  for  it  has  been  protected  by  a 
previous  catastrophe — the  sinking  in  of  its  roof  on  to  the  ground 
of  the  cave." 

Having  now  given  a  sketch  of  the  chief  features  presented  by 
man  and  his  surroundings  during  the  reindeer  epoch  ;  having 
described  the  most  important  objects  of  his  skill,  and  dwelt  upon 
the  products  of  his  artistic  faculties  ;  it  now  remains  for  us  to 
complete,  in  a  scientific  point  of  view,  the  study  of  this  question, 
by  notifying  the  sources  from  which  we  have  been  able  to  gather 
our  data,  and  to  bring  home  to  our  minds  these  interesting  ideas. 
Under  this  head,  we  may  state  that  almost  all  the  information 
which  has  been  obtained  has  been  derived  from  caves ;  and  it 
will,  therefore,  be  best  to  make  a  few  brief  remarks  on  the  caverns 
which  have  been  the  scene  of  these  various  discoveries. 

Honour  to  whom  honour  is  due.     In  mentioning  these  localities 


EPOCH  OF  MIGRATED  ANIMALS.  119 

we  must  place  in  the  first  class  the  settlements  of  Perigord,  which 
have  contributed  to  so  great  an  extent  towards  the  knowledge 
which  we  possess  of  primitive  man.  The  four  principal  ones  are 
the  cave  of  Les  Eyzies  and  the  rock-shelters  or  caverns  of  La 
Madeleine,  Laugerie-Haute,  and  Laugerie-Basse.  All  of  them  have 
been  explored  by  MM.  Lartet  and  Christy,  who,  after  having 
directed  the  excavations  with  the  greatest  ability,  have  set  forth 
the  results  of  their  researches  in  a  manner  no  less  remarkable.* 

The  settlement  of  Laugerie-Basse  has  also  been  explored  by  M 
de  Vibraye,  who  collected  there  some  very  interesting  specimens. 

We  have  no  intention  of  reverting  to  what  we  have  before 
stated  when  describing  the  objects  found  in  these  various  localities. 
We  will  content  ourselves  with  mentioning  the  lumbar  vertebral 
bone  of  a  reindeer  found  in  the  cave  of  Eyzies,  of  which  we  have 
given  a  representation  in  Fig.  55  ;  it  was  pierced  through  by  an 
arrow-head,  which  may  still  be  seen  fixed  in  it.  If  any  doubts 
could  still  exist  of  the  co-existence,  in  France,  of  man  and  the 
reindeer,  this  object  should  suffice  to  put  an  end  to  them  for  ever. 

We  will  mention,  as  next  in  importance,  the  cave  and  rock- 
shelters  at  Bruniquel  (Tarn-et-Garonne).  They  have  been  care- 
fully examined  by  a  great  many  explorers,  among  whom  we  must 
specify  M.  Garrigou,  M.  de  Lastic  (the  proprietor  of  the  cavern)* 
M.  V.  Brun,  the  learned  Director  of  the  Museum  of  Natural  His- 
tory at  Montauban,  and  M.  Peccadeau  de  1'Isle. 

It  is  to  be  regretted  that  M.  de  Lastic  sold  about  fifteen  hun- 
dred specimens  of  every  description  of  the  relics  which  had  been 
found  on  his  property,  to  Professor  Owen,  for  the  British  Museum- 
In  this  large  quantity  of  relics,  there  were,  of  course,  specimens 
which  will  never  be  met  with  elsewhere;  which,  therefore,  it 
would  have  been  better  in  every  respect  to  have  retained  in 
France. 

The  cave  of  Bruniquel  has  also  furnished  us  with  human  bones 
amongst  which  are  two  almost  perfect  skulls,  one  of  which  we 
have  previously  represented  ;  also  two  half  jaw-bones  which  re- 
semble those  found  at  Moulin-Quignon.  M.  V.  Brun  has  given,  in 
his  interesting  work,  a  representation  of  these  human  remains.f 

*  "  Reliquiae  Aquitanicae,"  by  Ed.  Lartet  and  H.  Christy.     London,  1865,  &c. 
f  "  Notice  sur  les  Fouilles  Paleontologiques   de  1'Age  de  la  Pierre  executees  a 
Bnmiquel  et  Saint- Antonin,"  by  V.  Brun.     Montauban,  1867. 


120  THE  STONE  AGE. 

We  will  now  mention  the  Cave  of  Bize>  near  Narbonne  ( Ancle); 
the  Cave  of  La  Vache,  in  the  Valley  of  Tarascon  (Ariege),  in  which 
M.  Garrigou  collected  an  immense  quantity  of  bones,  on  one  of 
which  some  peculiar  characters  are  graven,  constituting,  perhaps, 
a  first  attempt  in  the  art  of  writing  ;  the  Cavern  of  Massat,  in  the 
same  department,  which  has  been  described  by  M.  Fontan,  and  is 
thought  by  M.  Lartet  to  have  been  a  summer  dwelling-place,  the 
occupiers  of  which  lived  on  raw  flesh  and  snails,  for  no  traces  of  a 
hearth  are  to  be  seen,  although  it  must  have  been  used  for  a  con- 
siderably time  as  a  shelter  by  primitive  man  ;  the  Cave  of  Lourdcs, 
near  Tarbes  (Hautes-Pyrenees),  in  which  M.  Milne-Edwards  met 
with  a  fragment  of  a  human  skull,  belonging  to  an  adult  indivi- 
dual ;  the  Cave  of  Espalunguc,  also  called  the  Grotto  of  Izcste 
(Basses-Pyrenees),  where  MM.  Garrigou  and  Martin  found  a  human 
bone,  the  fifth  left  metatarsal ;  the  Cave  of  Savigne  (Vienne),, 
situated  on  the  banks  of  the  Charente,  and  discovered  by  M.  Joly- 
Leterme,  an  architect  of  Samur,  who  there  found  a  fragment  of  a 
stag's  bone,  on  which  the  bodies  of  two  animals  are  graven  with 
hatchings  to  indicate  shadows  ;  the  Grottos  of  La  Balme  and 
Bethenas,  in  Dauphine,  explored  by  M.  Chantre  ;  lastly,  the  settle- 
ment of  Solutre,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Macon,  from  which  MM. 
Ferry  and  Arcelin  have  exhumed  two  human  skulls,  together 
with  some  very  fine  flint  instruments  of  the  Laugerie-Haute  type. 

These  settlements  do  not  all  belong  to  the  same  epoch,  although 
most  of  them  correspond  to  the  long  period  known  as  the  reindeer 
epoch.  It  is  not  always  possible  to  determine  their  comparative 
chronology.  From  the  state  of  their  debris  it  can,  however,  be 
ascertained  that  the  caves  of  Lourdes  and  Espalungue  date  back 
to  the  most  ancient  period  of  the  reindeer  epoch ;  whilst  the  set- 
tlements of  Perigord,  of  Tarn-et-Garonne,  and  of  Maconnais  are  of 
a  later  date.  The  cave  of  Massat  seems  as  if  it  ought  to  be  dated 
at  the  beginning  of  the  wrought-stone  epoch,  for  no  bones  have 
been  found  there,  either  of  the  reindeer  or  the  horse  ;  the  remains, 
of  the  bison  are  the  sole  representatives  of  the  extinct  animal 
species. 

In  concluding  this  list  of  the  French  bone  caves  which  have 
served  to  throw  a  light  upon  the  peculiar  features  of  man's  exist- 
ence during  the  reindeer  epoch,  we  must  not  omit  to  mention 


EPOCH  OF  MIGRATED  ANIMALS.  121 

the  Belgian  caves,  which  have  been  so  zealously  explored  by 
M.  Edouard  Dupont.  From  the  preceding  pages,  we  may  perceive 
how  especially  important  the  latter  have  been  in  the  elucidation 
of  the  characteristics  of  man's  physical  organisation  during  this 
epoch. 

France  and  Belgium  are  not  the  only  countries  which  have 
furnished  monuments  relating  to  man's  history  during  the  reindeer 
epoch.  We  must  not  omit  to  mention  that  settlements  of  this  epoch 
have  been  discovered  both  in  Germany  and  also  in  Switzerland. 

In  1866  a  great  quantity  of  bones  and  broken  instruments  were 
found  at  the  bottom  of  an  ancient  glacier-moraine  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Rabensburg,  not  far  from  the  lake  of  Constance.  The 
bones  of  the  reindeer  formed  about  ninety-eight  hundredths  of 
these  remains.  The  other  debris  were  the  bones  of  the  horse,  the 
wolf,  the  brown  bear,  the  white  fox,  the  glutton,  and  the  ox. 

In  1858,  on  a  mountain  near  Geneva,  a  cave  was  discovered 
about  12  feet  deep  and  6  feet  wide,  which  contained,  under  a 
layer  of  carbonate  of  lime,  a  great  quantity  of  flints  and  bones. 
The  bones  of  the  reindeer  formed  the  great  majority  of  them, 
for  eighteen  skeletons  of  this  animal  were  found.  The  residue 
of  the  remains  were  composed  of  four  horses,  six  ibex,  inter- 
mingled with  the  bones  of  the  marmot,  the  chamois,  and  the 
hazel-hen  ;  in  short,  the  bones  of  the  whole  animal  population 
which,  at  the  present  time,  has  abandoned  the  valleys  of  Swit- 
zerland, and  is  now  only  to  be  met  with  on  the  high  mountains 
of  the  Alps. 


III. 

THE    POLISHED-STONE    EPOCH;     OR,     THE    EPOCH   OF    TAMED 

ANIMALS, 


EPOCH  OF  TAMED  ANIMALS.  125 


CHAPTER    I. 

The  European  Deluge — The  Dwelling-place  of  Man  during  the  Polished-stone  Epoch 
— The  Caves  and  Rock-shelters  still  used  as  Dwelling-places — Principal  Caves 
belonging  to  the  Polished-stone  Epoch  which  have  been  explored  up  to  the  present 
time — The  Food  of  Man  during  this  period. 

AIDED  by  records  drawn  from  the  bowels  of  the  earth,  we  have 
now  traversed  the  series  of  antediluvian  ages  since  the  era  when 
man  first  made  his  appearance  on  the  earth,  and  have  been  en- 
abled, though  but  very  imperfectly,  to  reconstruct  the  history  of 
our  primitive  forefathers.  We  will  now  leave  this  epoch,  through 
the  dark  night  of  which  science  seeks  almost  in  vain  to  penetrate, 
and  turn  our  attention  to  a  period  the  traces  of  which  are  more 
numerous  and  more  easily  grasped  by  our  intelligence — a  period, 
therefore,  which  we  are  able  to  characterise  with  a  much  greater 
degree  of  precision. 

A  great  catastrophe,  the  tradition  of  which  is  preserved  in  the 
memory  of  all  nations,  marked  in  Europe  the  end  of  the  quater- 
nary epoch.  It  is  not  easy  to  assign  the  exact  causes  for  this 
great  event  in  the  earth's  history ;  but  whatever  may  be  the  ex- 
planation given,  it  is  certain  that  a  cataclysm,  caused  by  the 
violent  flowing  of  rushing  water,  took  place  during  the  quaternary 
geological  epoch ;  for  the  traces  of  it  are  everywhere  visible. 
These  traces  consist  of  a  reddish  clayey  deposit,  mixed  with  sand 
and  pebbles.  This  deposit  is  called  in  some  countries  red  diluvium, 
and  in  others  grey  diluvium.  In  the  valleys  of  the  Rhone  and  the 
Rhine  it  is  covered  with  a  layer  of  loamy  deposit,  which  is  known 
to  geologists  by  the  name  of  loesse  or  lehm,  and  as  to  the  origin 
of  which  they  are  not  all  agreed.  Sir  Charles  Lyell  is  of  opinion 
that  this  mud  was  produced  by  the  crushing  of  the  rocks  by  early 
Alpine  glaciers,  and  that  it  was  afterwards  carried  down  by  the 
streams  of  water  which  descended  from  these  mountains.  This 
mud  covers  a  great  portion  of  Belgium,  where  it  is  from  10  to 


126  THE  STONE  AGE. 

30  feet  in  thickness,  and  supplies  with  material  a  large  number 
of  brickfields. 

This  deposit,  that  is,  the  diluvial  beds,  constitutes  nearly  the 
most  recent  of  all  those  which  form  the  earth's  crust ;  in  many 
European  countries  it  is,  in  fact,  the  ground  trodden  under  the 
feet  of  the  present  population. 

The  inundation  to  which  the  diluvium  is  referred  closes  the 
series  of  the  quaternary  ages.  After  this  era,  the  present  geo- 
logical period  commences,  which  is  characterised  by  the  almost 
entire  permanency  of  the  vertical  outline  of  the  earth,  and  by 
the  formation  of  peat-bogs. 

The  earliest  Documents  afforded  us  by  history  are  very  far  from 
going  back  to  the  starting-point  of  this  period.  The  history  of 
the  ages  which  we  call  historical  is  very  far  from  having  attained 
to  the  beginning  of  the  present  geological  epoch. 

In  order  to  continue  our  account  of  the  progressive  develop- 
ment of  primitive  man,  we  must  now  turn  our  attention  to  the 
Polished-stone  EpocJi,  or  the  Epoch  of  Tamed  Animals,  which 
precedes  the  Metal  Age. 

As  the  facts  which  we  shall  have  to  review  are  very  numerous, 
we  will,  in  the  first  place,  consider  this  epoch  as  it  affects  those 
parts  of  our  continent  which  forms  the  present  France  and 
Belgium  ;  next,  with  reference  to  Denmark  and  Switzerland,  in 
which  countries  we  shall  have  to  point  out  certain  manners  and 
customs  of  man  of  an  altogether  special  character. 

We  shall  consider  in  turn  : — 

1st.  The  habitation  of  man  during  the  polished-stone  epoch. 

2nd.  His  system  of  food. 

3rd.  His  arts  and  manufactures. 

4th.  The  weapons  manufactured  by  him,  and  their  use  in  war. 

5th.  His  attainments  in  agriculture,  fishing,  and  navigation. 

6th.  His  funeral  ceremonies. 

7th.  Lastly,  the  characteristics  of  mankind  during  this  epoch. 

Habitation. — In  that  part  of  the  European  continent  which  now 
forms  the  country  called  France,  man,  during  that  period  we  de- 
signate under  the  name  of  the  polished-stone  epoch,  continued  for 
a  considerable  time  to  inhabit  rock-shelters  and  caves  which 
afforded  him  the  best  retreat  from  the  attacks  of  wild  beasts. 


EPOCH  OF  TAMED  ANIMALS.  127 

This  fact  has  been  specially  proved  to  have  been  the  case  in 
the  extreme  south  of  the  above-mentioned  country.  Among  the 
investigations  which  have  contributed  towards  its  verification,  we 
must  give  particular  notice  to  those  made  by  MM.  Garrigou  and 
Filhol  in  the  caves  of  the  Pyrenees  (Ariege).  These  two  savants- 
have  also  explored  the  caves  of  Pradieres,  Bedeilhac,  Labart,. 
Niaux,  Ussat,  and  Fontanel.* 

In  one  of  these  caves,  which  we  have  already  mentioned  in  trie- 
preceding  chapter,  but  to  which  we  must  again  call  attention — 
for  they  belong  both  to  the  polished-stone,  and  also  to  the  rein- 
deer epoch — MM.  Garrigou  and  Filhol  found  the  bones  of  a  huge 
ox,  the  urus  or  Bos primigenius^  a  smaller  kind  of  ox,  the  stag, 
the  sheep,  the  goat,  the  antelope,  the  chamois,  the  wild  boar,  the 
wolf,  the  dog,  the  fox,  the  badger,  the  hare,  and  possibly  those  of 
the  horse.  Neither  the  bones  of  the  reindeer  nor  the  bison  are 
included  in  this  list  of  names  ;  on  account  of  the  mildness  of  the 
climate,  these  two  species  had  already  migrated  towards  the  north 
and  east  in  search  of  a  colder  atmosphere. 

The  remains  of  hearths,  bones  split  lengthwise,  and  broken 
skulls,  indicate  that  the  inhabitants  of  these  caves  lived  on  much 
the  same  food  as  their  ancestors.  It  is  probable  that  they  also 
ate  raw  snails,  for  a  large  quantity  of  their  shells  were  found  in 
this  cave,  and  also  in  the  cavern  of  Massat,f  the  presence  of 
which  can  only  be  accounted  for  in  this  way. 

These  remains  were  found  intermingled  with  piercers,  spear- 
heads, and  arrow-heads,  all  made  of  bone  ;  also  hatchets,  knives, 
and  scratchers,  made  of  flint,  and  also  of  various  other  substances, 
which  were  more  plentiful  than  flint  in  that  country,  such  as 
siliceous,  schist,  quartzite,  leptinite,  and  serpentine  stones.  These 
instruments  were  carefully  wrought,  and  a  few  had  been  polished! 
at  one  end  on  a  slab  of  flag-stone. 

In  the  cave  of  Lourdes  (Hautes-Pyrenees),  which  has  been  ex- 
plored by  M.  Alphonse  Milne-Edwards,  two  layers  were  observed  ; 
one  belonging  to  the  reindeer  epoch,  and  the  other  to  the  polished- 

*  "  L'Homme  Fossile  des  Cavernes  de  Lombrive  et  de  Lherm."  Toulouse,  1862-. 
Illustrated.  "  L'Age  de  Pierre  dans  les  Vallees  de  Tarascon"  (Ariege).  Tarascon, 
1863. 

f  "  Sur  deux  Cavernes  decouvertes  dans  la  Montague  de  Kaer  a  Massat "  (Ariege). 
Quoted  by  Lyell,  Appendix  to  "  The  Antiquity  of  Man,"  p.  247. 


128  THE  STONE  AGE. 

stone  epoch.*  The  cave  of  Pontil  (Herault),  which  has  been  care- 
fully examined  by  Professor  Gervais,f  has  furnished  remains  of 
every  epoch,  including  the  Bronze  Age  ;  we  must,  however,  except 
the  reindeer  epoch,  which  is  not  represented  in  this  cave. 

Lastly,  we  will  mention  the  cave  of  Saint-Jean-d'Alcas 
(Aveyron),  which  has  been  explored,  at  different  times,  by  M. 
Cazalis  de  Fondou.ce.  This  is  a  sepulchral  cave,  like  that  of 
Aurignac.  When  it  was  first  explored,  about  twenty  years  ago, 
five  human  skulls,  in  good  preservation,  were  found  in  it  —  a  dis- 
covery the  importance  of  which  was  then  unheeded,  and  the 
skulls  were,  in  consequence,  totally  lost  to  science.  Flint,  jade, 
and  serpentine  instruments,  carved  bones,  remains  of  rough  pot- 
tery, stone  amulets,  and  the  shells  of  shell-fish,  which  had  formed 
necklaces  and  bracelets,  were  intermingled  with  human  bones. 

At  Saint-Jean-d'Alcas,  M.  Cazalis  de  Fondouce  did  not  meet 
with  any  remains  of  funeral  banquets  such  as  were  found  at 
Aurignac  and  Furfooz  ;  he  only  noticed  two  large  flag-stones  lying 
across  one  another  at  the  mouth  of  the  cave,  so  as  to  make  the 
inlet  considerably  narrower. 

This  cave,  according  to  a  recent  publication  of  M.  Cazalis,  must 
be  referred  to  a  more"  recent  epoch  than  was  at  first  supposed,  for 
some  fragments  of  metallic  substances  were  found  in  it.  It  must, 
therefore,  have  belonged  to  a  late  period  of  the  polished-stone 
epoch.  J 


System  of  Feeding  during  tJie  Polished-stone  EpocJi.  —  In 
order  to  obtain  full  information  on  the  subject  of  man's  food  in 
the  north  and  centre  of  Europe  during  the  polished-stone  epoch, 
we  must  appeal  to  the  interesting  researches  of  which  Denmark 
has  been  the  scene  during  the  last  few  years  ;  but  these  researches, 
on  account  of  their  importance,  require  a  detailed  account. 

*  "De  1'Existence  de  1'Homme  pendant  la  Periode  quaternaire  dans  la  grotte  de 
Lourdes"  (Hautes-Pyrenees).  ("  Annales  des  Sciences  Naturelles,"  4th  series,  vol. 
xvii.) 

t"Memoires  de  1'  Academic  de  Montpellier"  ("Section  des  Sciences"),  1857, 
vol.  iii.  p.  509. 

+  "  Sur  une  Caverne  de  1'Age  de  la  Pierre,  situee  pres  de  Saint-Jean-d'Alcas" 
(Aveyron),  1864.  "  Derniers  Temps  de  1'Age  de  la  Pierre  Polie  dans  1'  Aveyron," 
Montpellier,  1867.  Illustrated. 


Fig.  76.— Man  oi  the  Polished-stone  Epoch.     (Page  128.) 


EPOCH  OF  TAMED  ANIMALS.  129 


CHAPTER   II. 

The  Kjoekken-Moeddings  or  "  Kitchen-middens"  of  Denmark — Mode  of  Life  of  the 
Men  living  in  Denmark  during  the  Polished-stone  Epoch — The  Domestication  of 
the  Dog — the  Art  of  Fishing  during  the  Polished-stone  Epoch — Fishing-nets — 
Weapons  and  Instruments  of  War — Type  of  the  Human  Race  ;  the  Borreby  Skull. 

ALTHOUGH  classed  in  the  lowest  rank  on  account  of  the  small 
extent  of  its  territory  and  the  number  of  its  inhabitants,  the 
Danish  nation  is,  nevertheless,  one  of  the  most  important  in 
Europe,  in  virtue  of  the  eminence  to  which  it  has  attained  in 
science  and  art.  This  valiant,  although,  numerically  speaking, 
inconsiderable  people,  can  boast  of  a  great  number  of  distinguished 
men  who  are  an  honour  to  science.  The  unwearied  researches  of 
their  archaeologists  and  antiquarians  have  ransacked  the  dust  of 
bygone  ages,  in  order  to  call  into  new  life  the  features  of  a 
vanished  world.  Their  labours,  guided  by  the  observations  of 
naturalists,  have  brought  out  into  the  clear  light  of  day  some  of 
the  earliest  stages  in  man's  existence  and  progress. 

There  is  no  part  of  the  world  more  adapted  than  Denmark  to 
this  kind  of  investigation.  Antiquities  may  be  met  with  at  every 
step  ;  the  real  point  in  question  is  to  know  how  to  examine  them 
properly,  so  as  to  obtain  from  them  important  revelations  con- 
cerning the  manners,  customs,  and  manufactures  of  the  pre- 
historic inhabitants.  The  Museum  of  Copenhagen,  which  con- 
tains antiquities  from  various  Scandinavian  states,  is,  in  this 
respect,  without  a  rival  in  the  world. 

Among  the  objects  arranged  in  this  well-stocked  Museum  a 
great  many  specimens  may  be  observed  which  have  come  from 
the  so-called  kitchen-middens. 

In  the  first  place,  what  are  these  kjoekken-moeddings,  or 
kitchen-middens,  with  their  uncouth  Scandinavian  name  ? 

Immense  accumulations  of  shells  have  been  observed  on  dif- 

K 


130  THE  STONE  AGE. 

ferent  points  of  the  Danish  coast,  chiefly  in  the  north,  where  the 
sea  enters  those  narrow  deep  creeks,  known  by  the  name  of 
fiords.  These  deposits  are  not  generally  raised  more  than  about 
3  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea ;  but  in  some  steep  places  their 
altitude  is  greater.  They  are  about  3  to  10  feet  in  thickness, 
and  from  100  to  200  feet  in  width  ;  their  length  is  sometimes  as 
much  as  1000  feet,  with  a  width  of  from  150  to  250  feet.  On 
some  of  the  more  level  shores  they  form  perfect  hills,  on  which, 
as  at  Havelse,  windmills  are  sometimes  built. 

What  do  we  meet  with  in  these  heaps  ?  An  immense  quantity 
of  sea-shells,  especially  those  of  the  oyster,  broken  bones  of 
mammiferous  animals,  remains  of  birds  and  fish ;  and,  lastly, 
some  roughly-wrought  flints. 

The  first  idea  formed  with  regard  to  these  kitchen-middens 
was  that  they  were  nothing  but  banks  of  fossil  shells,  beds  which 
had  formerly  been  submerged,  and  subsequently  brought  to  light 
by  an  upheaval  of  the  earth  caused  by  some  volcanic  cause.  But 
M.  Steenstrup,  a  Danish  savant,  opposed  this  opinion,  basing  his 
contradiction  on  the  fact  that  these  shells  belong  to  four  different 
species  which  are  never  found  together,  and  consequently  they 
must  have  been  brought  together  by  man.  M.  Steenstrup  also 
called  attention  to  the  fact  that  almost  all  these  shells  must  have 
belonged  to  full-grown  animals,  and  that  there  were  hardly  any 
young  ones  to  be  found  amongst  them.  A  peculiarity  of  this 
kind  is  an  evident  indication  of  the  exercise  of  some  rational 
purpose ;  in  fact,  of  an  act  of  the  human  will. 

When  all  the  debris  and  relics  which  we  have  enumerated  were 
discovered  in  these  kitchen-middens,  when  the  remains  of  hearths 
— small  spots  which  still  retained  traces  of  fire — were  found  in 
them,  the  origin  of  these  heaps  was  readily  conjectured.  Tribes 
once  existed  there  who  subsisted  on  the  products  of  fishing  and 
hunting,  and  threw  out  round  their  cabins  the  remains  of  their 
meals,  consisting  especially  of  the  debris  of  shell-fish.  These  re- 
mains gradually  accumulated,  and  constituted  the  considerable 
heaps  which  we  are  discussing ;  hence  the  name  of  kjoekkeu- 
moedding,  composed  of  two  words — kjoekken,  kitchen ;  and 
moedding,  heap  of  refuse.  These  "  kitchen-middens,"  as  they  are 
called,  are,  therefore,  the  refuse  from  the  meals  of  the  primitive 
population  of  Denmark. 


EPOCH  OF  TAMED  ANIMALS.  131 

If  we  consider  the  heaps  of  oyster-shells  and  other  debris  which 
accumulate  in  the  neighbourhood  of  eating-houses  in  certain 
districts,  we  may  readily  understand,  comparing  great  things  with 
small,  how  these  Danish  kitchen-middens  were  produced.  I  my- 
self well  recollect  having  noticed  in  the  environs  of  Montpellier 
small  hillocks  of  a  similar  character,  formed  by  the  accumulation 
of  oyster-shells,  mussels,  and  clams. 

When  the  conviction  was  once  arrived  at  that  these  kitchen-mid- 
dens were  the  refuse  of  the  meals  of  the  primitive  inhabitants,  the 
careful  excavation  of  all  theseheaps  scattered  along  the  Danish  coast 
became  an  extremely  interestingoperation.  It  might  be  justly  ex- 
pected that  some  data  would  be  collected  as  to  the  customs  and 
manufactures  of  the  ancient  dwellers  in  these  countries.  A  com- 
mission was,  in  consequence,  appointed  by  the  Danish  Government 
to  examine  these  deposits,  and  to  publish  the  results  of  its  labours. 

This  commission  was  composed  of  three  savants,  each  of  whom 
were  eminent  in  their  respective  line — Steenstrup,  the  naturalist ; 
Forchammer,  a  geologist ;  and  the  archaeologist,  Worsaae — and 
performed  its  task  with  as  much  talent  as  zeal.  The  observations 
which  were  made  are  recorded  in  three  reports  presented  to  the 
Academy  of  Sciences  at  Copenhagen.  From  these  documents 
are  borrowed  most  of  the  details  which  follow. 

Before  proceeding  to  acquaint  our  readers  with  the  facts  brought 
to  light  by  the  Danish  commission,  it  will  be  well  to  remark  that 
Denmark  does  not  stand  alone  in  possessing  these  kitchen- 
middens.  They  have  been  discovered  in  England — in  Cornwall 
and  Devonshire — in  Scotland,  and  even  in  France,  near  Hyeres 
(Bouches-du-Rhone)  .* 

MM.  Sauvage  and  Hamy  have  pointed  out  to  M.  de  Mortillet 
the  existence  of  deposits  of  this  kind  in  the  Pas-de-Calais.  They 
may  be  noticed,  say  these  naturalists,  at  La  Salle  (Commune  of 
Outreau),  at  certain  parts  of  the  coast  of  Portel,  and  especially  a 
very  large  heap  at  Cronquelets  (Commune  of  Etaples).  They 
chiefly  consist  of  the  cardium  edule,  which  appear  to  abound  in 
the  kitchen-middens  of  the  Pas-de-Calais. 

Messrs.  Evans,  Prestwich,  and  Lubbock  observed  one  of  these 

*  "  Note  sur  un  Amas  de  Coquilles  melees  a  cles  Silex  tallies,  signale  sur  les  C6tes 
de  Provence,"  by  M.  A.  Gory  ("Revue  Archeologique").  Quoted  in  the  "Materiaux 
de  1'histoire  positive  de  I'Homme,"  by  M.  de  Mortillet,  vol.  i.  p.  535. 


I32  THE  STONE  AGE. 

deposits  at  Saint-Valery,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Somme.  Added  to 
this,  they  have  been  described  by  various  travellers  as  existing  in 
different  parts  of  the  world.  Dampier  studied  them  in  Australia, 
and  Darwin  in  Tierra  del  Fuego,  where  deposits  of  the  same  cha- 
racter are  now  in  the  course  of  formation.  M.  Pereira  da  Costa  found 
one  on  the  coast  of  Portugal ;  Sir  C.  Lyell  has  testified  to  the  exist- 
ence of  others  on  the  coasts  of  Massachusetts  and  Georgia,  in  the 
United  States  ;  M.  Strobel,  on  the  coasts  of  Brazil.  But  those  in 
Denmark  are  the  only  deposits  of  this  kind  which  have  been  the 
subject  of  investigations  of  a  deliberate  and  serious  character. 

Almost  all  these  kitchen-middens  are  found  on  the  coast,  along 
the  fiords,  where  the  action  of  the  waves  is  not  much  felt.  Some 
have,  however,  been  found  several  miles  inland ;  but  this  must  be 
owing  to  the  fact  that  the  sea  once  occupied  these  localities,  from 
which  it  has  subsequently  retired.  They  are  not  to  be  met  with 
on  some  of  the  Danish  coasts,  as  those  of  the  western  side  ;  this, 
on  the  one  hand,  may  be  caused  by  their  having  been  washed 
away  by  the  sea,  which  has  there  encroached  on  the  land,  or  on 
the  other  hand,  by  the  fact  that  the  western  coast  was  much  less 
sheltered  than  the  other  parts  of  the  Danish  peninsula.  They 
are  not  unfrequently  to  be  found  in  the  adjacent  islands. 

These  kitchen-middens  form,  in  a  general  way,  undulating 
mounds,  which  sink  in  a  gentle  incline  from  the  centre  to  the 
circumference.  The  spot  where  they  are  thickest  indicates  the 
site  of  the  habitations  of  man.  Sometimes  we  may  notice  one 
principal  hillock,  surrounded  by  smaller  mounds ;  or  else,  in  the 
middle  of  the  heaps,  there  is  a  spot  which  must  have  been  the 
site  of  the  encampment. 

These  refuse  deposits  are  almost  entirely  made  up  of  shells  of 
various  kinds  of  molluscs ;  the  principal  species  are  the  oyster, 
the  cockle,  the  mussel,  and  the  periwinkle.  Others,  such  as 
whelks,  helices  (edible  snails),  nassa,  and  trigonella,  are  also 
found ;  but  they  are  comparatively  few  in  number. 

Fishes'  bones  are  discovered  in  great  abundance  in  the  kitchen- 
middens.  They  belong  to  the  cod,  herring,  dab,  and  eel.  From 
this  we  may  infer  that  the  primitive  inhabitants  of  Denmark 
were  not  afraid  of  venturing  out  to  brave  the  waves  of  the  sea 
in  their  frail  skiffs  ;  for  the  herring  and  the  cod  cannot,  in  fact, 
be  caught  except  at  some  little  distance  from  the  shore. 


EPOCH  OF  TAMED  ANIMALS.  133 

Mammalian  bones  are  also  plentifully  distributed  in  the  Danish 
kitchen-middens.  Those  most  commonlymet  with  arethe  remains 
of  the  stag,  the  roe,  and  the  boar,  which,  according  to  M.  Steen- 
strup's  statement,  make  up  ninety-seven  hundredths  of  the  whole 
mass.  Others  are  the  relics  of  the  urus,  the  wolf,  the  dog,  the 
fox,  the  wild  cat,  the  lynx,  the  marten,  the  otter,  the  porpoise,  the 
seal,  the  water-rat,  the  beaver,  and  the  hedgehog. 

The  bison,  the  reindeer,  the  elk,  the  horse,  and  the  domestic  ox 
have  not  left  behind  them  any  trace  which  will  permit  us  to 
assume  that  they  existed  in  Denmark  at  the  period  when  these 
deposits  were  formed. 

Amongst  other  animals,  we  have  mentioned  the  dog.  By  various 
indications,  we  are  leol  to  the  belief  that  this  intelligent  creature 
had  been  at  this  time  reduced  to  a  state  of  domesticity.  It  has 
been  remarked  that  a  large  number  of  the  bones  dispersed  in  these 
kitchen-middens  are  incomplete;  exactly  the  same  parts  are  almost 
always  missing,  and  certain  bones  are  entirely  wanting.  M.  Steen- 
§trup  is  of  opinion  that  these  deficiencies  may  be  owing  to  the 
agency  of  dogs,  which  have  made  it  their  business  to  ransack  the 
heaps  of  bones  and  other  matters  which  were  thrown  aside  by 
their  masters.  This  hypothesis  was  confirmed,  in  his  idea,  when 
he  became  convinced,  by  experience,  that  the  bones  which  were 
deficient  in  these  deposits  were  precisely  those  which  dogs  are  in 
the  habit  of  devouring,  and  that  the  remaining  portions  of  those 
which  were  found  were  not  likely  to  have  been  subject  to  their 
attacks,  on  account  of  their  hardness  and  the  small  quantity  of 
assimilable  matter  which  was  on  or  in  them. 

Although  primitive  man  may  have  elevated  the  dog  to  the 
dignity  of  being  his  companion  and  friend,  he  was,  nevertheless, 
sometimes  in  the  habit  of  eating  him.  No  doubt  he  did  not  fall 
back  upon  this  last  resort  except  in  cases  when  all  other  means  of 
subsistence  failed  him.  Bones  of  the  dog,  broken  by  the  hand  of 
man,  and  still  bearing  the  marks  of  having  been  cut  with  a  knife,  are 
amongst  the  remains  found,  and  place  the  fact  beyond  any  question. 

We  find,  besides,  the  same  taste  existing  here  which  we  have 
seen  manifested  in  other  ages  and  different  countries.  All  the 
long  bones  have  been  split  in  order  to  extract  their  marrow — the 
dainty  so  highly  appreciated  by  man  during  the  epochs  of  the 
reindeer  and  the  mammoth. 


134 


THE  STONE  AGE. 


Some  remains  of  birds  have  been  found  in  the  kitchen-middens  ; 
but  most  of  the  species  are  aquatic — a  fact  which  may  be  readily 
explained  by  the  seaboard  position  of  the  men  who  formed  these 
deposits. 

As  the  result  of  this  review  of  the  various  substances  which 
were  made  use  of  for  food  by  the  men  of  the  polished-stone  epoch, 
we  may  infer  that  they  were  both  hunters  and  fishermen. 

Animals  of  rapid  pace  were  hunted  down  by  means  of  the  dart 
or  arrow,  and  any  more  formidable  prey  was  struck  down  at  close 
quarters  by  some  sharp  stone  weapon. 

j  Fishing  was  practised,  as  at  the  present  day,  by  means  of  the 
line  and  net. 


Fig.  77.— Bone  Skewers  used  as  Fish-hooks. 

We  have  already  seen  that  men,  during  the  reindeer  epoch, 
probably  used  hooks  fastened  at  the  end  of  lines.  These  hooks,  as 
wehave  before  remarked,  were  made  with  splinters  of  bone  or  rein- 
deer horn.  During  the  polished-stone  epoch  this  fishing  instrument 
was  much  improved,  and  they  now  possessed  the  real  hook  with  a 
recurvate  and  pointed  end.  This  kind  of  hook  was  found  by  Dr. 
Uhlmann  in  one  of  the  most  ancient  lacustrine  stations  of  Switzer- 
land. But  a  curved  hook  was  both  difficult  to  make  and  also  not 
very  durable  ;  instead  of  it  was  used  another  and  more  simple  sort 
— the  straight  skewer  fixed  to  serve  as  a  hook.  This  is  a  simple 
fragment  of  bone,  about  an  inch  long,  very  slender  and  pointed  at 
the  two  ends  (Fig.  77).  Sometimes  it  is  a  little  flattened  in  the 
middle,  or  bored  with  a  hole,  into  which  the  line  was  fastened. 

This  little  splinter  of  bone,  when  hidden  by  the  bait  and 


EPOCH  OF  TAMED  ANIMALS.  135 

fastened  to  a  line,  was  swallowed  by  the  fish  and  could  not  be 
disgorged,  one  of  the  pointed  ends  being  certain  to  bury  itself  in 
the  entrails  of  the  creature. 

Some  of  our  readers  will  perhaps  be  surprised  to  learn  that  men 
of  the  polished-stone  epoch  were  in  the  habit  of  fishing  with  nets ; 
but  it  is  a  fact  that  cannot  be  called  into  question,  for  the  very 
conclusive  reason,  that  the  remains  of  these  nets  have  been  found. 

How  could  it  possibly  come  to  pass  that  fishing-nets  of  the 
polished-stone  epoch  should  have  been  preserved  to  so  late  a 
period  as  our  times  ?  This  is  exactly  the  question  we  are  about 
to  answer. 

On  the  lakes  of  Switzerland  and  of  other  countries,  there  used  to 
exist  certain  habitations  of  man.  These  are  the  so-called  lacustrine 
dwellings  which  we  shall  have  hereafter  to  consider  in  some  con- 
siderable detail,  when  we  come  to  the  Bronze  Age.  The  men  who 
lived  on  these  lakes  were  necessarily  fishers  ;  and  some  traces  of 
their  fishing-nets  have  been  discovered  by  a  circumstance  which 
chemistry  finds  no  difficulty  in  explaining.  Some  of  these  lake 
dwellings  were  destroyed  by  fire  ;  as,  for  instance,  the  lacustrine 
settlements  of  Robenhausen  and  Wangen  in  Switzerland.  The 
outsides  of  these  cabins,  which  were  almost  entirely  constructed 
of  wood,  burnt,  of  course,  very  readily ;  but  the  objects  inside, 
chiefly  consisting  of  nets — the  sole  wealth  of  these  tribes — could 
not  burn  freely  for  want  of  oxygen,  but  were  only  charred  with 
the  heat.  They  became  covered  with  a  slight  coating  of  some 
empyreumatic  or  tarry  matter — an  excellent  medium  for  insuring 
the  preservation  of  any  organic  substance.  These  nets  having 
been  scorched  by  the  fire,  fell  into  the  water  with  the  debris  of 
the  hut,  and,  in  consequence  of  their  precipitate  fall,  never  having 
come  in  actual  contact  with  the  flame,  have  been  preserved 
almost  intact  at  the  bottom  of  the  lakes.  When,  after  a  long 
lapse  of  centuries,  they  have  been  again  recovered,  these  debris 
have  been  the  means  of  affording  information  as  to  the  manu- 
facture both  of  the  fishing-nets,  and  also  as  to  the  basket-work, 
vegetable  provisions,  &c.,  of  these  remote  ages. 

In  one  of  Dr.  Keller's  papers  on  these  lacustrine  dwellings,  of 
which  we  shall  have  more  to  say  further  on,  we  find  a  description 
and  delineation  of  certain  fishing-nets  which  were  recovered  from 


136 


THE  STONE  AGE. 


the  lake  of  Robenhausen.  In  the  Museum  of  Saint-Germain  we 
inspected  with  curiosity  several  specimens  of  these  very  nets,  and 
here  we  give  a  representation  of  one  of  them.  There  were  nets 
with  wide  meshes  like  that  shown  in  Fig.  78,  and  also  some  more 


Fig.  78. — Fishing-net  with  wide  Meshes. 

closely  netted.  The  mesh  is  a  square  one,  and  appears  to  have 
been  made  on  a  frame  by  knotting  the  string  at  each  point  of 
intersection.  All  these  nets  are  made  of  flax,  for  hemp  had  not 
yet  been  cultivated. 


Fig.  79. — Stone  Weight  used  for  sinking  the  Fishing-nets. 

These  nets  were  held  suspended  in  the  water  by  means  of  floats, 
made,  not  of  cork,  but  of  the  thick  bark  of  the  pine-tree,  and  were 
held  down  to  the  bottom  of  the  water  by  stone  weights.  We  give 


EPOCH  OF  TAMED  ANIMALS.  137 

a  representation  here  (Fig.  79)  of  one  of  these  stone  weights  taken 
from  a  specimen  exhibited  in  the  Museum  of  Saint-Germain. 

These  stone  weights,  large  quantities  of  which  are  to  be  seen  in 
museums,  and  especially  in  that  of  Saint-Germain,  are,  in  almost 
every  case,  nothing  but  pebbles  bored  through  the  centre.  Some- 
times, however,  they  were  round  pieces  of  soft  stone,  having  a 
hole  made  in  the  middle.  Through  this  hole  the  cord  was  passed 
and  fastened  by  a  knot  on  the  other  side.  By  means  of  the  floats 
and  weights  the  nets  were  made  to  assume  any  position  in  the 
water  which  was  wished. 

The  large  size  of  the  meshes  in  the  nets  belonging  to  the 
polished-stone  epoch  proves,  that  in  the  lakes  and  rivers  of  this 
period  the  fish  that  were  used  for  food  were  of  considerable 
dimensions.  Added  to  this,  however,  the  monstrous  hooks  be- 
longing to  this  epoch  which  have  been  found  in  the  Seine  tend 
to  corroborate  this  hypothesis. 

Thus,  then,  the  art  of  fishing  had  arrived  in  the  polished-stone 
epoch  to  a  very  advanced  stage  of  improvement. 

In  Plate  80  we  give  a  representation  of  fishing  as  carried  on 
during  the  polished-stone  epoch. 

Returning  to  the  subject  of  the  ancient  Danes,  we  must  add, 
that  these  men,  who  lived  on  the  sea-coasts,  clad  themselves  in 
skins  of  beasts,  rendered  supple  by  the  fat  of  the  seal  and  marrow 
extracted  from  the  bones  of  some  of  the  large  mammals.  For 
dwelling-places  they  used  tents  likewise  made  of  skins  prepared 
in  the  same  way. 

Arts  and  Manufactures. — What  degree  of  skill  in  this  respect 
was  attained  by  the  men  who  lived  during  the  polished-stone 
epoch  ?  To  give  an  answer  to  this  question,  we  must  again  ran- 
sack those  same  kitchen-middens  which  have  been  the  means  of 
furnishing  us  with  such  accurate  information  as  to  the  system  of 
food  of  the  man  of  that  period.  We  shall  also  have  to  turn  our 
attention  to  the  remains  found  in  the  principal  caves  of  this 
epoch. 

An  examination  of  the  instruments  found  in  the  kitchen-middens 
shows  us  that  the  flints  are  in  general  of  a  very  imperfect  type, 
with  the  exception,  however,  of  the  long  splinters  or  knives,  the 
workmanship  of  which  indicates  a  considerable  amount  of  skill. 


i38 


THE  STONE  AGE. 


Fig.  8 1  represents  a  flint  knife  from  one  of  the  Danish  deposits, 
delineated  in  the  Museum  of  Saint-Germain;  and  Fig.  82  a  nucleus, 


f/l 


Fig.  8r. — Flint  Knife,  from  one  of  the 
Danish  Beds. 


Fig.  82. — Nucleus  off  which  Knives  are 
flaked. 


that  is,  a  piece  of  flint  from  which  splinters  have  been  taken  off, 
which  were  intended  to  be  used  as  knives. 


Fig.  83. — Flint  Hatchet,  from  one  of  the 
Danish  Beds. 


Fig.  84. — Flint  Scraper,  from  one  of  the 
Danish  Beds 


We  also  give  a  representation  of  a  hatchet  (Fig.  83)  and  a  scraper 
(Fig.  84),  which  came  from  the  same  source. 

Besides  these  instruments,  bodkins,  spear-heads,  and  stones  for 
slings  have  also  been  found  in  the  kitchen-middens,  without 


EPOCH  OF  TAMED  ANIMALS. 


139 


taking  into  account  a  quantity  of  fragments  of  flint  which  do  not 
appear  to  have  been  wrought  with  any  special  purpose  in  view, 
and  were  probably  nothing  but  rough  attempts,  or  the  mere 
refuse  of  the  manufacture. 

In  the  same  deposits  there  are  also  found  a  good  many  pebbles, 
which,  according  to  the  general  opinion,  must  have  been  used  as 
weights  to  sink  the  fishing-nets  to  the  bottom  of  the  water.  Some 
are  hollowed  out  with  a  groove  all  round  them,  like  that  depicted 
in  Fig.  86,  which  is  designed  from  a  specimen  in  the  Museum  of 
Saint-Germain.  Others  have  a  hole  bored  through  the  middle. 


Fig.  85. — Refuse  from  the  Manufacture  of  wrought 
Flints. 


Fig.  86.— Weight  to  sink  Fishing-nets. 


This  groove  or  hole  was,  doubtless,  intended  to  hold  the  cord 
which  fastened  the  stone  weight  to  the  net. 

Weapons  and  Tools. — We  shall  now  pass  on  to  the  weapons 
and  tools  which  were  in  use  among  the  people  in  the  north  of 
Europe  during  the  period  we  are  considering. 

During  the  latter  period  of  the  polished-stone  epoch  working 
in  stone  attained  to  a  really  surprising  degree  of  perfection 
among  the  people  of  the  North.  It  is,  in  fact,  difficult  to  under- 
stand how,  without  making  use  of  any  metallic  tools,  men  could 
possibly  impart  to  flint,  when  fashioned  into  weapons  and 
implements  of  all  kinds,  those  regular  and  elegant  shapes  which 
the  numerous  excavations  that  have  been  set  on  foot  are  con- 
stantly bringing  to  light.  The  Danish  flint  may,  it  is  true,  be 
wrought  with  great  facility ;  but  nevertheless,  an  extraordinary 
amount  of  skill  would  be  none  the  less  necessary  in  order  to 


140  THE  STONE  AGE. 

produce  that  rectitude  of  outline  and  richness  of  contour  which  are 
presented  by  the  Danish  specimens  of  this  epoch — specimens 
which  will  not  be  surpassed  even  in  the  Bronze  Age. 

The  hatchets  found  in  the  north  of  Europe,  belonging  to  the 
polished-stone  epoch,  differ  very  considerably  from  the  hatchets  of 
France  and  Belgium.  The  latter  are  rounded  and  bulging  at  the 
edges  ;  but  the  hatchets  made  use  of  by  the  people  of  the  North 
(Fig.  87)  were  flatter  and  cut  squarely  at  the  edge.  They  were  nearly 
in  the  shape  of  a  rectangle  or  elongated  trapezium,  with  the  four 


Fig.  87.— Danish  Axe  of  the  Polished-stone  Epoch.  Fig.  88.— Double-edged  Axe. 

angles  cut  off.  Their  dimensions  are  sometimes  considerable ; 
some  have  been  found  which  measured  nearly  16  inches  in  length. 
Independently  of  this  type,  which  is  the  most  plentiful,  the 
northern  tribes  used  also  to  manufacture  the  drilled  hatchet,  which 
is  combined  in  various  ways  with  the  hammer.  In  these  instru- 
ments, the  best  workmanship  and  the  most  pleasing  shapes  are  to 
be  noticed.  The  Figs.  88,  89,  and  90,  designed  in  the  Museum  of 
Saint-Germain,  from  authentic  specimens  sent  by  the  Museum  of 
Copenhagen,  represent  double-edged  axes  and  axe-hammers.  They 
are  all  pierced  with  a  round  hole,  in  which  the  handle  was  fixed. 


EPOCH  OF  TAMED  ANIMALS.  141 

The  cutting  edge  describes  an  arc  of  a  circle,  and  the  other  end 
is  wrought  into  sharp  angular  edges. 


Fig.  89. — Danish  Axe-hammer,  drilled  for  handle. 

These  hatchets  are  distinguished  from  those  of  the  reindeer 
epoch  by  a  characteristic  which  enables  us  to  refer  them  without 
hesitation  to  their  real  date,  even  in  cases  in  which  they  have  not 


Fig.  90.— Danish  Axe-hammer,  drilled  for  handle. 

yet  been  subject  to  the  operation  of  polishing.  The  hatchets  of 
the  reindeer  epoch  have  their  cutting  edge  at  the  narrowest  end, 
whilst  those  of  the  polished-stone  epoch  are  sharp  at  their  widest 


I42  THE  STONE  AGE. 

end.  This  observation  does  not  apply  specially  to  the  Danish 
hatchets ;  it  refers  equally  to  those  of  other  European  countries. 
The  spear-heads  are  masterpieces  of  good  taste,  patience,  and 
skill.  There  are  two  sorts  of  them.  The  most  beautiful  (Figs. 
91,92)  assume  the  shape  of  a  laurel-leaf;  they  are  quite  flat,  and 
chipped  all  over  with  an  infinite  amount  of  art.  Their  length  is 
as  much  as  15  inches.  Others  are  shorter  and  thicker  in  shape, 


Fig.  91.— Spear-head  from  Denmark.  Fig.  92.— Spear-head  from  Denmark. 

and  terminate  at  the  base  in  an  almost  cylindrical  handle.  Some- 
times they  are  toothed  at  the  edge  (Fig.  93).  These  spear-heads 
were  evidently  fixed  at  the  end  of  a  staff,  like  the  halberds  of  the 
middle  ages  and  the  modern  lance. 

The  poniards  (Fig.  94)  are  no  less  admirable  in  their  workman- 
ship than  the  spear-heads,  from  which  they  do  not  perceptibly 
differ,  except  in  having  a  handle,  which  is  flat,  wide,  solid,  and 
made  a  little  thicker  at  the  end.  This  handle  is  always  more  or 


EPOCH  OF  TAMED  ANIMALS.  14.3 

less  ornamented,  and  is  sometimes  covered  with  delicate  carving. 


'•'•     •       [JIM 

H 


Fig.  93-— Toothed  Spear-head  of  Flint.  Fig.  94.— Flint  Poniard,  from  Denmark. 

To  chip  a  flint  in  this  way  must  have  required  a  skilful  and  well- 
practised  hand. 


*Jg-  95.— Type  of  the  Danish  Arrow-head.        Fig.  96.— Another  Type  of  Arrow-head. 

After  these  somewhat  extraordinary   instruments,   we  must 


144 


THE  STONE  AGE. 


mention  the  arrow-heads,  the  shapes  of  which  are  rather  varied 
in  their  character. 

The  arrow-heads  most  frequently  found  are  formed  in  the  shape 
of  a  triangular  prism,  terminating  at  the  lower  end  in  a  stem  in- 
tended to  be  inserted  into  a  stick  (Fig.  95) ;  others  are  deeply  in- 
dented at  the  base  and  quite  flat.  Many  are  finely  serrated  on  the 
edges,  and  occasionally  even  on  the  inside  edge  of  the  indentation. 
.  95,  96,  97,  and  98  represent  the  various  types  of  Danish 


Fig.  97.— Arrow-head.  Fig.  98.— Arrow-head  from  Denmark. 


Fig.  09.— Flint 
Chisel  from 
Denmark. 


arrow-heads,  all  of  which  are  in  the  Museum  of  Saint-Germain, 
and  from  which  these  designs  were  made. 

The  chisels  and  gouges  equally  merit  a  special  mention. 

The  chisel  (Fig.  99)  is  a  kind  of  quadrangular  prism,  chipped 
in  a  bevel  down  to  the  base. 

The  gouges  are  hollowed  out  on  one  of  their  faces,  so  as  to  act 
as  the  tool  the  name  of  which  has  been  applied  to  them. 

We  next  come  to  some  curious  instruments,  of  which  we  have 
given  designs  taken  from  the  specimens  in  the  Museum  of  Saint- 
Germain  ;  the  purpose  they  were  applied  to  is  still  problematical. 
They  are  small  flakes  or  blades,  in  the  shape  of  a  crescent  (Figs. 


EPOCH  OF  TAMED  ANIMALS. 


145 


100,  101).  The  inner  edge,  which  was  either  straight  or  concave, 
is  usually  serrated  like  a  saw ;  the  convex  side  must  have  been 
fixed  into  a  handle ;  for  the  traces  of  the  handle  may  still  be 
detected  upon  many  of  them.  These  instruments  were  probably 
made  use  of  as  scrapers  in  the  preparation  of  skins  for  garments ; 
perhaps,  also,  they  were  used  as  knives  or  as  saws. 

We  must  now  turn  our  attention  to  instruments  made  of  bone 
or  stag's  horn.     They  are  much  less  numerous  than  those  of  stone, 


Fig.  100. — Small  Stone  Saw  from 
the  Danish  Deposits. 


Fig.  101. — Another  Stone.Saw 
from  Denmark. 


Fig.  102. — Bone  Har- 
poon of  the  Stone 
Age  from  Denmark. 


and  have  nothing  about  them  of  a  very  remarkable  character. 
The  only  implement  that  is  worthy  of  notice  is  the  harpoon  (Fig. 
102).  It  is  a  carved  bone,  and  furnished  with  teeth  all  along  one 
side,  the  other  edge  being  completely  smooth.  The  harpoon  of 
the  reindeer  epoch  was  decidedly  superior  to  it. 

On  account  of  its  singularity,  we  must  not  omit  to  mention  an 
object  made  of  bone,  composed  of  a  wide  flat  plate,  from  which 
spring  seven  or  eight  teeth  of  considerable  length,  and  placed  very 
close  together ;  there  is  a  kind  of  handle,  much  narrower,  and 


I46  THE  STONE  AGE. 

terminating  in  a  knob,  like  the  top  of  a  walking-stick.  This  is 
probably  one  of  the  first  combs  which  ever  unravelled  the  thickly- 
grown  heads  of  hair  of  primitive  man. 


Fig.  103. — Bone  Comb  from  Denmark. 


It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  amber  is  very  plentiful  on  the 
coasts  of  the  Baltic.  Even  in  the  Stone  Age,  it  was  already 
much  appreciated  by  the  northern  tribes,  who  used  to  make 
necklaces  of  it,  either  by  merely  perforating  the  rough  morsels 


Fig.  104. — Necklace  and  various  Ornaments  of  Amber. 

of  amber  and  stringing  them  in  a  row,  or  by  cutting  them  into 
spherical  or  elliptical  beads,  as  is  the  case  nowadays. 

Fig.  104  represents  a  necklace  and  also  various  other  ornaments 
made  of  yellow  amber,  which  have  been  drawn  from  specimens 
in  the  Museum  of  Saint-Germain. 
J  Although  these  northern  tribes  of  the  polished-stone  epoch  were 


EPOCH  OF  TAMED  ANIMALS.  147 

such  skilful  workmen  in  flint,  they  were,  nevertheless,  but  poor 
hands  at  pottery.  The  debris  of  vessels  collected  from  the  Danish 
kitchen-middens,  and  also  from  the  peat-bogs  and  tombs,  are  in 
every  way  rough,  and  testify  to  a  very  imperfect  knowledge  of  the 
art  of  moulding  clay.  They  may  be  said  to  mark  the  first  efforts 
of  a  manufacturing  art  which  is  just  springing  into  existence,  which 
is  seeking  for  the  right  path,  although  not,  as  yet,  able  to  find  it. 
The  art  of  pottery  (if  certain  relics  be  relied  on)  was  more  advanced 
at  a  more  ancient  period ;  that  is,  during  the  reindeer  epoch. 

We  have  already  stated  that  during  the  reindeer  epoch  there 
existed  certain  manufactories  of  weapons  and  tools,  the  produc- 
tions of  which  were  distributed  all  round  the  adjacent  districts,  - 
although  over  a  somewhat  restricted  circle.  In  the  epoch  at  which 
we  have  now  arrived,  certain  workshops — for  really  this  is  the 
proper  name  to  give  them — acquired  a  remarkable  importance, 
and  their  relations  became  of  a  much  more  extensive  character. 
In  several  of  the  Belgian  caves,  flints  have  been  found  which  must 
have  come  from  the  celebrated  workshop  of  Grand-Pressigny, 
situated  in  that  part  of  the  present  France  which  forms  the  de- 
partment of  Indre-et-Loire,  and,  from  their  very  peculiar  character, 
are  easily  recognisable.  Commerce  and  manufacture  had  then 
emerged  from  their  merely  rudimentary  state,  and  were  entering 
into  a  period  of  activity  implying  a  certain  amount  of  civilisation. 

The  great  principle  of  division  of  labour  had  already  been  put 
into  practice,  for  there  were  special  workshops  both  for  the 
shaping  and  polishing  of  flints. 

The  most  important  of  all  the  workshops  which  have  been 
noticed  in  France  is,  unquestionably,  that  of  Grand-Pressigny, 
which  we  have  already  mentioned.  It  was  discovered  by  Dr. 
L^veille,  the  medical  man  of  the  place  ;  but,  to_tell  the  truth,  it  is 
not  so  much  in  itself  a  centre  of  manufacture  as  a  series  of  work- 
shops distributed  in  the  whole  neighbourhood  round  Pressigny. 

At  the  time  of  this  discovery,  that  is,  in  1864,  flints  were  found 
in  thousands  imbedded  in  the  vegetable  mould  on  the  surface  of 
the  soil,  over  a  superficies  of  1 2  to  14  acres.  The  Abbe  Chevalier, 
giving  an  account  of  this  curious  discovery  to  the  Academie  des 
Sciences  at  Paris,  wrote  :  "It  is  impossible  to  walk  a  single  step 
without  treading  on  some  of  these  objects." 


148  THE  STONE  AGE. 

The  workshops  of  Grand-Pressigny  furnish  us  with  a  consider- 
able variety  of  instruments.  We  find  hatchets  in  all  stages  of 
manufacture,  from  the  roughest  attempt  up  to  a  perfectly  polished 
weapon.  We  find,  also,  long  flakes  or  flint-knives  cleft  off  with 
a  single  blow  with  astonishing  skill. 

All  these  objects,  even  the  most  beautiful  among  them,  are 
nevertheless  defective  in  some  respect  or  other  ;  hence  it  may  be 
concluded  that  they  were  the  refuse  thrown  aside  in  the  process 
of  manufacture.  In  this  way  may  be  explained  the  accumulation 
of  so  many  of  these  objects  in  the  same  spot. 

There  were  likewise  narrow  and  elongated  points  forming  a 


Fig.  105.— Nucleus  in  the  Museum  of  Saint-Germain,  from  the  workshop  of  Grand-Pressigny. 

kind  of  piercer,  perfectly  wrought ;  also  scrapers,  and  saws  of  a 
particular  type,  which  seem  to  have  been  made  in  a  special  work- 
shop. They  are  short  and  wide,  and  have  at  each  end  a  medial 
slot  intended  to  receive  a  handle. 

But  the  objects  which  are  the  most  numerous  of  all,  and  those 
which  obviate  any  doubt  that  Pressigny  was  once  an  important 
centre  of  the  manufacture  of  flint,  are  the  nuclei  (Fig.  105),  or  the 
remnants  of  the  lump  of  flint,  from  which  the  large  blades  known 
under  the  name  of  knives  were  cleft  off.  Some  of  these  lumps 
which  we  have  seen  in  the  Museum  of  Saint-Germain  were  as  much 
as  1 1  and  13  inches  in  length ;  but  the  greater  part  did  not  exceed 
7  inches.  The  labourers  of  Touraine,  who  often  turn  up  these 


EPOCH  OF  TAMED  ANIMALS.  149 

flints  with  their  ploughshares,  call  them  founds  of  btitter,  looking 
at  the  similarity  of  shape.  At  the  present  day  these  nuclei  are 
plentiful  in  all  the  collections  of  natural  history  and  geology. 

A  strange  objection  has  been  raised  against  the  antiquity  of 
the  hatchets,  knives,  and  weapons  found  at  Pressigny.  M.  Eugene 
Robert  has  asserted  that  these  flints  were  nothing  else  but  the 
refuse  of  the  siliceous  masses  which,  at  the  end  of  the  last  cen- 
tury, and  especially  at  the  beginning  of  the  present,  were  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  gun-flints  ! 

The  Abbe"  Bourgeois,  M.  Penguilly  1'Haridon,  and  Mr.  John 
Evans  did  not  find  much  difficulty  in  proving  the  slight  founda- 
tion there  was  for  this  criticism.  In  the  department  of  Loire- 
et-Cher,  in  which  the  gun-flint  manufacture  still  exists,  the 
residue  from  the  process  bears  no  resemblance  whatever  to  the 
nuclei  of  Pressigny ;  the  fragments  are  much  less  in  bulk,  and  do 
not  present  the  same  constantly-occurring  and  regular  shapes. 
Added  to  this,  they  are  never  chipped  at  the  edges,  like  a  great 
number  of  the  flakes  coming  from  the  workshops  of  Touraine. 

But  another  and  altogether  peremptory  argument  is  that  the 
flints  of  Pressigny-le-Grand  are  unfitted,  on  account  of  the  texture, 
for  the  manufacture  of  gun-flints.  Moreover,  the  records  of  the 
Artillery  Depot,  as  remarked  by  M.  Penguilly  1'Haridon,  librarian 
of  the  Artillery  Museum,  do  not  make  mention  of  the  locality  of 
Pressigny  having  ever  been  worked  for  this  purpose.  Lastly,  the 
oldest  inhabitants  of  the  commune  have  testified  that  they  never 
either  saw  or  heard  of  any  body  of  workmen  coming  into  the 
district  to  work  flints.  M.  Eugene  Robert's  hypothesis,  which 
MM.  Decaisne  and  Elie  de  Beaumont  thought  right  to  patronise, 
is,  therefore,  as  much  opposed  to  facts  as  to  probability. 

Very  few  polished  flints  are  found  in  the  workshops  of  Pres- 
signy-le-Grand ;  it  is,  therefore,  imagined  that  their  existence 
commenced  before  the  polished-stone  epoch.  According  to  this 
idea,  the  nuclei  would  belong  to  a  transitional  epoch  between  the 
period  of  chipped  stone,  properly  so  called,  and  that  of  polished 
stone.  The  first  was  just  coming  to  an  end,  but  the  second  had 
not  actually  commenced.  In  other  words,  most  of  the  Pressigny 
flints  have  the  typical  shapes  and  style  of  cutting  peculiar  to  the 
polished-stone  age,  but  the  polishing  is  wanting. 


150  THE  STONE  AGE. 

This  operation  was  not  practised  in  the  workshops  of  Pressigny 
until  some  considerable  period  after  they  were  founded,  and  were 
already  in  full  operation.  In  the  neighbourhood  of  this  locality  a 
numberof  polishers  havebeen  found  of  a  very  remarkable  character. 
They  are  large  blocks  of  sandstone  (Fig.  106),  furrowed  all  over,  or 
only  on  a  portion  of  their  surface,  with  grooves  of  various  depths, 
in  which  objects  might  be  polished  by  an  energetic  friction. 

Some  polishers  of  the  same  kind,  which  have  been  found  in 
various  departments,  are  rather  different  from  the  one  we  have 
just  named.  Thus,  one  specimen  which  was  found  by  M.  Leguay 
in  the  environs  of  Paris,  in  the  burial-places  of  Varenne-Saint- 
Hilaire,  of  which  we  give  a  representation  further  on,  is  provided 


Fig.  106.— Polisher  from  Grand- Pressigny,  both  faces  being  shown. 

not  only  with  grooves  but  also  hollows  of  a  basin-like  shape,  and 
of  some  little  depth. 

The  polishing  of  the  flints  was  carried  into  effect  by  rubbing 
them  against  the  bottom  of  these  hollows,  which  were  moistened 
by  water,  and  no  doubt  contained  siliceous  dust  of  a  harder 
nature  than  the  stone  which  had  to  be  polished. 

We  must  here  pause  for  a  moment  to  remark  that  all  these 
operations  which  were  carried  out  by  our  ancestors  in  fashioning 
the  flint  could  not  fail  to  have  presented  certain  difficulties,  and 
must  have  required  a  remarkable  development  of  intelligence 
and  skill. 

Working  flints  into  shape,  which  appears  at  first  sight  a  very 


EPOCH  OF  TAMED  ANIMALS.  151 

simple  matter,  is,  however,  a  rather  complicated  operation,  on 
account  of  the  properties  of  this  mineral  substance  and  the  beds 
in  which  it  lies. 

In  its  natural  state  the  flint  presents  itself  in  the  shape  of  nearly 
round  lumps,  which  are  brittle,  but  nevertheless  very  hard,  and 
which,  like  glass,  can  be  split  in  any  direction  by  a  blow,  so  as  to 
furnish  scales  with  sharp  edges.  In  consequence  of  this  circum- 
stance, all  that  would  be  requisite  in  order  to  produce  sharp  objects 
is  to  cleave  off  flakes  in  the  shape  of  a  knife  or  poniard,  by  striking 
a  flint,  held  in  the  left  hand,  with  another  and  harder  flint  or  ham- 
mer. Instead  of  holding  in  the  left  hand  the  flint  which  was  to  be 
wrought,  it  might  also  be  placed  on  a  rest,  and,  being  held  fast 
with  the  left  hand,  suitable  blows  might  be  applied  to  the  stone. 

We  must  not,  however,  omit  to  mention  that  to  enable  the  flint 
to  be  cut  up  into  sharp  splinters  and  to  be  broken  in  any  desired 
direction,  it  is  necessary  for  it  to  have  been  very  recently  extracted 
from  the  bosom  of  the  earth ;  it  must  possess  the  humidity  which 
is  peculiar  to  it,  with  which  it  is  impregnated  when  in  its  natural 
bed.  If  pieces  of  flint  are  exposed  to  the  open  air  they  cannot 
afterwards  be  readily  broken  with  any  degree  of  regularity;  they 
then  afford  nothing  but  shapeless  and  irregular  chips,  of  an  entirely 
different  character  from  that  which  would  be  required  in  fashioning 
them.  This  moisture  was  well  known  to  the  workmen  who  used  to 
manufacture  the  gun-flints,  and  was  called  the  quarry  damp. 

The  necessity  that  the  flint  should  be  wrought  when  newly  ex- 
tracted from  the  earth,  and  that  the  stones  should  only  be  dug  just 
in  proportion  as  they  were  wanted,  brought  about  as  a  proximate 
result  the  creation  and  working  of  mines  and  quarries,  which  are 
thus  almost  as  ancient  as  humanity  itself.  Being  unable  to  make 
use  of  flints  which  had  been  dried  in  the  air,  and  consequently 
rendered  unfit  for  being  wrought,  the  workmen  were  compelled 
to  make  excavations,  and  to  construct  galleries,  either  covered  or 
exposed  to  the  open  air,  to  employ  wooden  battening,  shores, 
supports  ;  in  short,  to  put  in  use  the  whole  plant  which  is  required 
for  working  a  stone-quarry.  As,  in  order  not  to  endanger  the 
lives  of  the  labourers,  it  was  found  necessary  to  prevent  any 
downfalls,  they  were  induced  to  follow  out  a  certain  methodical 
system  in  their  excavations,  by  giving  a  sufficient  thickness  to 


152  THE  STONE  AGE. 

the  roofs  of  the  galleries,  by  sinking  shafts,  by  building  breast- 
walls,  and  by  adopting  the  best  plan  for  getting  out  the  useless 
detritus.  When,  as  was  often  the  case,  water  came  in  so  as  to 
hinder  the  miners,  it  was  necessary  to  get  rid  of  it  in  order  that 
the  workmen  should  not  be  drowned.  It  was  also  sometimes 
requisite  that  the  galleries  and  the  whole  system  of  underground 
ways  should  be  supplied  with  air. 

Thus  their  labour  in  fashioning  the  flint  must  have  led  our 
ancestors  to  create  the  art  of  working  quarries  and  mines. 

It  has  been  made  a  subject  of  inquiry  how  the  tribes  of  the  Stone 
Age  could  produce,  without  the  aid  of  any  iron  tool,  the  holes 
which  are  found  in  the  flints,  and  how  they  could  perforate  these 
same  flints  so  as  to  be  able  to  fit  in  handles  for  the  hatchets,  pon- 
iards, and  knives ;  in  fact,  lapidaries  of  the  present  day  cannot  bore 
through  gun-flints  without  making  use  of  diamond  dust.  We  are 
of  opinion  that  the  bow,  which  was  employed  by  primitive  man  in 
producing  fire  by  rubbing  wood  against  wood,  was  also  resorted  to 
in  the  workshops  for  manufacturing  stone  implements  and  weapons 
for  giving  a  rapid  revolving  motion  to  a  flint  drill,  which  was  suf- 
ficient to  perforate  the  stone.  Certain  experiments  which  have 
been  made  in  our  own  day  with  very  sharp  arrow-heads  which 
belonged  to  primitive  man  have  proved  that  it  is  thus  very  possible 
to  pierce  fresh  flints,  if  the  action  of  the  drill  is  assisted  by  the 
addition  of  some  very  hard  dust  which  is  capable  of  increasing  the 
bite  of  the  instrument.  This  dust  or  powder,  consisting  of  corun- 
dum or  zircon,  might  have  been  found  without  any  great  difficulty 
by  the  men  of  the  Stone  Age.  These  substances  are,  in  fact,  to 
be  met  with  on  the  banks  of  rivers,  their  presence  being  betrayed 
by  the  golden  spangles  which  glitter  in  the  sand. 

Thus  the  flint-drill,  assisted  by  one  of  these  powders,  was  quite 
adequate  for  perforating  siliceous  stones.  When  it  is  brought  to 
our  knowledge  that  the  workmen  of  the  Black  Forest  thus  bore 
into  Bohemian  granite  in  less  than  a  minute,  we  shall  not  feel 
inclined  to  call  this  explanation  in  question.* 

Fig.  107  attempts  to  give  a  representation  of  the  workshop  at 

*  See  J.  Evans,  "  On  the  Manufacture  of  Stone  Implements  in  Pre -historic  Times," 
in  Trans,  of  the  International  Congress  of  Pre-historic  Archaeology  (Norwich,  1868), 
p.  191  ;  and  C.  Rau,  "  Drilling  in  Stone  without  Metal,"  in  Report  of  Smithsonian 
Institution,  1868. 


EPOCH  OF  TAMED  ANIMALS.  153 

Pressigny  for  shaping  and  polishing  flints — in  other  words,  a 
manufacturing  workshop  of  the  polished-stone  epoch. 

In  this  sketch  we  have  depicted  the  polisher  found  by  M.  Leguay, 
of  which  we  give  a  representation  in  Fig.  108.  In  this  picture  it 
was  indispensable  for  us  to  show  the  operation  of  polishing,  for  the 
latter  is  a  characteristic  of  the  epoch  of  mankind  which  we  are  now 
describing,  that  is,  the  polished-stone  period.  It  must,  in  fact,  be 
remarked  that  duringtheepoch  of  thegreat  bearand  the  mammoth, 
and  the  reindeer  epoch,  stone  instruments  were  not  polished,  they 
were  purely  and  simply  flakes  or  fragments  of  stone.  During  the 
epoch  at  which  we  have  now  arrived,  a  great  improvement  took 
place  in  this  kind  of  work,  and  stone  instruments  were  polished. 
It  is  therefore  essential  to  call  attention  to  the  latter  operation. 

We  think  we  ought  to  quote  here  the  brief  account  M.  Leguay 
has  given  of  the  polisher  represented  in  our  figure.  In  his  "Note 
sur  une  Pierre  a  polir  les  Silex  trouvee  en  Septembre,  1860,  a  la 
Varenne-Saint-Hilaire  (Seine),"  M.  Leguay  thus  writes  : — 

"Amongst  the  many  monuments  of  the  Stone  Age  which  I 
have  collected  at  Varenne-Saint-Hilaire,  on  the  site  of  the  ancient 
settlement  which  once  existed  there,  there  is  one  which  has 
always  struck  me,  not  only  by  its  good  state  of  preservation,  but 
also  by  the  revelations  which  it  affords  us  as  to  one  of  the 
principal  manufactures  of  these  tribes — the  fabrication  of  flint 
weapons  and  utensils. 

"  This  object  is  a  stone  for  polishing  and  fashioning  the  finest 
kind  of  hatchets.  I  discovered  it  in  September,  1860,  at  a  spot 
called  La  Pierre  ait  Pretre,  along  with  several  other  monuments 
of  primitive  art,  which  I  intend  before  long  to  make  public. 
This  stone  is  a  rough  sandstone  of  cubical  shape,  showing  no 
trace  whatever  of  having  been  hewn.  It  is  13  inches  in  its 
greatest  thickness,  and  measures  37  inches  long  by  21  wide,  and, 
just  as  in  many  boulders,  one  of  its  faces  is  well  adapted  to  the 
use  for  which  it  was  employed. 

"This  is  the  face  which  was  used  for  many  long  years  for 
rubbing  and  polishing  the  weapons  made  in  the  place,  the 
remains  of  which  are  still  found  in  small  quantities  in  the 
neighbourhood,  and  abound  in  the  burial-places,  where  they  have 
been  deposited  as  votive  offerings. 

"  Almost  the  whole  of  its  surface  is  occupied.     In  the  centre  is 


154 


THE  STONE  AGE. 


a  basin  presenting  an  oval  surface,  25  inches  the  long  way,  and 
12  inches  the  narrow  way.  The  stone,  which  has  been  consider- 
ably worn  away  in  consequence  of  long  use,  has  been  rubbed  off 
to  a  central  depth  of  about  I  inch  ;  this  portion  must  have  been 
used  for  rubbing  the  larger  objects  after  they  had  been  roughly 
shaped  by  chipping.  The  length  of  the  basin  allowed  a  motion 
of  considerable  length  to  be  given  to  the  stone  which  was  being 
worked,  at  the  same  time  giving  facilities  to  the  workman  for  the 
exercise  of  all  his  strength.  Added  to  this,  this  cavity  enabled 
the  almond-like  shape  to  be  given  to  the  objects — a  form  which 
they  nearly  all  present. 

"Either  in  front  or  to  the  right,  according  to  the  position  in 


Fig.  108. — Polisher  found  by  M.  Leguay. 

which  the  observer  stands,  and  almost  touching  the  edge  of  this 
basin,  there  is  a  hole  deeply  hollowed  in  the  stone,  being  30  inches 
long  ;  it  extends  along  almost  the  whole  length  of  the  sandstone, 
with  the  maximum  breadth  of  about  I  inch,  and  presents  the 
shape  of  a  very  elongated  spindle  hollowed  out  to  a  depth  of 
something  less  than  half  an  inch  in  the  centre,  which  tapers  off 
to  nothing  at  the  two  ends. 

"  The  wear  of  the  stone  and  the  shape  of  this  groove  point  out 
its  intention.  It  must  have  been  used  to  reduce  the  edges  or  the 
sides  of  the  hatchet,  which,  after  the  chipping  and  flat  polishing, 
were  left  either  too  thick  or  too  sharp  for  a  handle  to  be  easily 


EPOCH  OF  TAMED  ANIMALS.  155 

fitted  to  them.  Added  to  this,  it  smoothed  down  the  roughnesses 
caused  by  chipping,  which  it  replaced  by  a  round  form  of  no  great 
thickness,  which  was  again  and  again  rubbed  flatly  on  the  stone 
to  give  it  a  square  and  sharp-edged  level.  This  last  operation 
took  place  in  a  basin,  and  it  gave  to  the  hatchet  a  curve  in  a 
lengthwise  direction  which  is  by  no  means  ungraceful. 

"  The  thinning  off  of  the  edges  of  the  groove  was  not  an  imma- 
terial matter.  It  not  only  assisted  in  forming  the  above-named 
curve,  but  also  prevented  the  cutting  edge  being  distorted,  and 
avoided  the  need  of  subsequent  repolishing,  which  spoiled  the 
object  by  rubbing  it  away  too  much. 

"  It  must  not  be  for  a  moment  imagined  that  the  edge  of  the 
hatchet  was  made  in  this  groove.  Examination  proves  the  con- 
trary, and  that  it  was  done  flatwise  while  polishing  the  rest  of  the 
object ;  and  if  sometimes  its  thickness  did  not  allow  this,  it  was 
preliminarily  done,  and  then  finished  in  the  general  polishing. 

"  But  although  this  basin,  and  its  accompanying  groove,  on  ac- 
count of  their  dimensions,  acted  very  well  for  polishing  the  large 
hatchets,  the  case  was  different  with  the  smaller  ones.  This  is  the 
reason  why  two  other  smaller  basins,  and  also  a  small  groove, 
were  made  on  the  flat  part  of  the  stone  by  the  side  of  the  others. 

"  These  two  basins  were  placed  at  two  corners  of  the  face  of  the 
stone,  but  still  parallel  to  the  larger  basin  and  also  to  the  larger 
groove,  so  as  to  be  convenient  for  the  requirements  of  the  work- 
man engaged  in  polishing,  without  compelling  him  to  shift  his 
position  ;  one  is  10  inches  and  the  other  13  inches  in  length, 
with  a  mean  breadth  of  about  2^  inches.  They  are  both  in  the 
shape  of  a  rather  narrow  almond,  and  end  almost  in  a  point,  which 
seems  to  show  that  they  also  were  used  in  polishing  somewhat 
narrow  objects — perhaps  to  set  right  the  edges  of  hatchets,  in 
which  the  rubbing  in  the  larger  basin  had  produced  cavities  pre- 
judicial to  the  perfection  of  the  faces. 

"The  small  groove,  placed  very  near  the  larger  one,  is  9  inches 
long.  It  is  the  same  shape  as  the  other,  but  is  not  so  deep,  and 
scarcely  half  an  inch  wide. 

"  Not  far  from  the  end  of  this  latter  groove,  at  the  point 
where  it  approaches  the  larger  one,  there  are  traces  of  a  groove 
scarcely  commenced. 

"Lastly,  the  flat  portions  of  the  stone  which  are  not  occupied 


156  THE  STONE  AGE. 

by  the  basins  and  grooves  were  sometimes  used  for  touching  up 
the  polish,  or  even  for  smoothing  various  objects. 

"Thus,  as  we  see,  this  polishing-stone,  which  is  one  of  the  most 
complete  in  existence,  has  on  it  three  basins  of  different  sizes, 
two  well-defined  grooves,  and  one  only  just  sketched  out.  It 
would  serve  for  finishing  off  all  the  instruments  that  could  be 
required  ;  but,  nevertheless,  two  other  sandstones  of  moderate 
size  were  found  near  it ;  one  round,  and  the  other  of  a  spindle- 
like  shape  ;  these,  which  were  worn  and  rubbed  all  over  their 
surfaces,  must  also  have  been  used  in  polishing  objects. 

"  Finding  these  stones  was,  however,  a  thing  of  frequent  occur- 
rence in  several  spots  of  this  locality,  where  I  often  met  with 
them  ;  they  were  of  all  sizes  and  all  shapes,  and  perfectly  adapted 
for  polishing  small  flints,  needles,  and  the  cutting  edges  of  knives, 
deposited  with  them  in  the  sepulchres. 

"  This  polishing-stone,  which  is  thickly  covered  with  dendrites 
or  incrustations,  must  have  been  in  use  at  the  time  it  was  aban- 
doned. I  found  it  about  2  feet  below  the  surface  of  the  soil,  in 
which  it  was  turned  upside  down  ;  that  is,  the  basin  lay  next  the 
earth.  The  few  monuments  that  were  with  it — one  among  which 
I  looked  upon  as  an  idol  roughly  carved  in  a  block  of  sandstone 
— were  all  likewise  turned  upside  down.  There  had  been 
sepulchres  in  the  neighbourhood,  but  they  had  been  violated ; 
and  the  displaced  stones,  as  well  as  the  bones  themselves,  only 
served  to  point  out  the  presence  of  the  former  burial-place." 

The  polishing  of  stone  instruments  was  effected  by  rubbing  the 
object  operated  upon  in  a  cavity  hollowed  out  in  the  centre  of  the 
polisher,  in  which  cavity  a  little  water  was  poured,  mixed  with 
zircon,  or  corundum  powder,  or,  perhaps,  merely  with  oxide  of 
iron,  which  is  used  by  jewellers  in  carrying  out  the  same  opera- 
tion. 

It  is  really  surprising  to  learn  what  an  enormous  quantity  of 
flints  could  be  prepared  by  a  single  workman,  provided  with  the 
proper  utensils.  For  information  on  this  point,  it  is  requisite  to 
know  what  could  be  done  by  our  former  flint-workers  in  the  de- 
partments of  Indre  and  Loire-et-Cher,  who  are,  in  fact,  the 
descendants  of  the  workmen  of  the  Stone  Age.  Dolomieu,  a 
French  naturalist,  desired  at  the  beginning  of  the  century  to 


EPOCH  OF  TAMED  ANIMALS.  157 

acquaint  himself  with  the  quantity  which  these  workmen  could 
produce,  and  at  the  same  time  to  thoroughly  understand  the 
process  which  they  employed  in  manufacturing  gun-flints. 

By  visiting  the  workshops  of  the  flint-workers,  M.  Dolomieu 
ascertained  that  the  first  shape  which  the  workman  gave  to  the 
flint  was  that  of  a  many-sided  prism.  In  the  next  place,  five  or 
six  blows  with  the  hammer,  which  were  applied  in  a  minute,  were 
sufficient  to  cleave  off  from  the  mass  certain  fragments  as  exact  in 
shape,  with  faces  as  smooth,  outlines  as  straight,  and  angles  as  sharp, 
as  if  the  stone  had  been  wrought  by  a  lapidary's  wheel — an  opera- 
tion which,  in  the  latter  case,  would  have  required  an  hour's  handi- 
work. All  that  was  requisite,  says  Dolomieu,  is  that  the  stones 
should  be  fresh,  and  devoid  of  flaws  or  heterogeneous  matter.  When 
operating  upon  a  good  kind  of  flint,  freshly  extracted  from  the 
ground,  a  workman  could  prepare  1000  proper  flakes  of  flint  in  a 
day,  turning  out  500  gun-flints,  so  that  in  three  days  he  would 
perfectly  finish  1000  ready  for  sale.  In  1789,  the  Russian  army 
was  furnished  with  gun-flints  from  Poland.  The  manufactory  was 
established  at  Kisniew.  At  this  period,  according  to  Dolomieu,. 
90,000  of  these  gun-flints  were  made  in  two  months. 

Besides  those  at  Grand-Pressigny,  some  other  pre-historic  work- 
shops have  been  pointed  out  in  France.  We  may  mention  those 
of  Charente,  discovered  by  M.  de  Rochebrune ;  also  those  of  Poitou, 
and,  lastly,  the  field  of  Diorieres,  at  Chauvigny  (Loire-et-Cher), 
which  appears  to  have  been  a  special  workshop  for  polishing  flint 
instruments.  There  is,  in  fact,  not  far  from  Chauvigny,  in  the 
same  department,  a  rock  on  which  twenty-five  furrows,  similar  to 
those  in  the  polishing-stones,  are  still  visible ;  on  which  account 
the  inhabitants  of  the  district  have  given  it  the  name  of  the 
"  Scored  Rock."  It  is  probable  that  this  rock  was  used  for  polish- 
ing the  instruments  which  were  sculptured  at  Diorieres. 

The  same  kind  of  open-air  workshops  for  the  working  of  flints. 
have  also  been  discovered  in  Belgium. 

The  environs  of  Mons  are  specially  remarkable  in  this  respect. 
At  Spiennes,  particularly,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  an  important 
manufactory  of  wrought  flints  existed  during  the  polished-stone 
epoch.  A  considerable  number  of  hatchets  and  other  implements 
have  been  found  there ;  all  of  them  being  either  unfinished,  de- 


158  THE  STONE  AGE. 

fective,  or  scarcely  commenced.  We  here  give  a  representation 
(Fig.  109)  of  a  spear-head  which  came  from  this  settlement. 

Sometimes  these  workshops  were  established  in  caverns,  and 
not  in  the  open  air.  We  are  told  this  by  M.  J.  Fournet,  a  natu- 
ralist of  Lyons,  in  his  work  entitled  "  Influence  du  Mineur  sur 
la  Civilisation/' 

"  For  a  very  long  time  past,"  says  M.  Fournet,  the  caves  of 
Mentone  had  been  known  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  district,  on 
account  of  the  accumulation  of  debris  contained  in  them,  a  boxful 
of  which  were  sent  to  Paris,  before  1848,  by  the  Prince  of  Monaco; 
the  contents  of  it,  however,  were  never  subjected  to  any  proper 


Fig.  109. — Spear-head  from  Spiennes. 

explanation.  Since  this  date,  M.  Grand,  of  Lyons,  to  whom  I  am 
indebted  for  a  collection  of  specimens  from  these  caves,  carefully 
made  several  excavations,  by  which  he  was  enabled  to  ascertain 
that  the  most  remarkable  objects  are  only  to  be  met  with  at  a 
certain  depth  in  the  clayey  deposit  with  which  the  soil  of  these 
caves  is  covered.  All  the  instruments  are  rough  and  rudi- 
mentary in  their  character,  and  must,  consequently,  be  assigned 
to  the  first  commencement  of  the  art.  Nevertheless,  among  the 
flints  some  agates  were  found,  which,  in  my  opinion,  certainly 
came  from  the  neighbourhood  of  Frejus ;  and  with  them  also 


EPOCH  OF  TAMED  ANIMALS.  159 

some  pieces  of  hyaline  quartz  in  the  shape  of  prisms  terminated 
by  their  two  ordinary  pyramids.  We  have  a  right  to  suppose 
that  these  crystals,  which  resembled  the  Mcylau  Diamonds  found 
near  Grenoble,  did  not  come  there  by  chance,  and  that  their  sharp 
points,  when  fixed  in  a  handle  and  acting  as  drills,  were  used  for 
boring  holes  in  stone." 

Flint  was  not,  however,  the  only  substance  used  during  this 
epoch  in  the  manufacture  of  st  one-hatchets,  instruments,  and 
tools.  In  the  caves  of  France,  Belgium,  and  Denmark  a  con- 
siderable number  of  hatchets  have  been  found,  made  of  gneiss, 
diorite,  ophite,  fibrolite,  jade,  and  vari  ous  other  very  hard  mineral 
substances,  which  were  well  adapted  to  the  purpose  required  and 
the  use  to  which  they  were  put. 


Fig.  no.— Polished  Jade  Hatchet  in  the  Museum  of  Saint-Germain. 

Among  the  most  remarkable  we  may  mention  several  jade 
hatchets  which  were  found  in  the  department  of  Gers,  and  orna- 
mented with  small  hooks  on  each  side  of  the  edge.  One  of  these 
beautiful  jade  hatchets  (Fig.  no),  the  delineation  of  which  is 
"taken  from  the  specimen  in  the  Museum  of  Saint-Germain,  was 
found  in  the  department  of  Seine-et-Oise ;  it  has  a  sculptured 
ridge  in  the  middle  of  each  face. 

But  neither  flint,  gneiss,  nor  diorite  exist  in  every  country. 
For  these  stones  some  less  hard  substance  was  then  substituted. 
In  Switzerland  the  instruments  and  tools  were  generally  made  of 


160  THE  STONE  AGE. 

pebbles  which  had  been  drifted  down  by  the  streams.  They 
were  fashioned  by  breaking  them  with  other  stones,  by  rubbing 
them  on  sandstone,  or  by  sawing  them  with  toothed  blades  of 
flint  according  to  their  cohesive  nature. 

In  some  localities  also  objects  of  large  size  were  made  of 
serpentine,  basalts,  lavas,  jades,  and  other  rocks  chosen  on 
account  of  their  extreme  cohesiveness. 

Manual  skill  had,  however,  attained  such  a  pitch  of  perfection 
among  the  workmen  of  this  period,  in  consequence  of  their  being 
habituated  to  one  exclusive  kind  of  labour,  that  the  nature  of  the 
stone  became  a  matter  of  indifference  to  them.  The  hammer, 
with  the  proper  use  of  which  our  workmen  are  almost  unac- 
quainted, was  a  marvellous  instrument  in  the  hands  of  our  ances- 
tors ;  with  it  they  executed  prodigies  of  workmanship,  which 
seem  as  if  they  ought  to  have  been  reserved  for  the  file  and 
grindstone  of  the  lapidary  of  the  present  day. 

We  shall  not,  perhaps,  surprise  our  readers  if  we  add  that  as 
certain  volcanic  lavas,  especially  obsidian,  fracture  with  the  same 
regularity  and  the  same  facility  as  the  flint,  obsidian  was  em- 
ployed by  the  natives  of  America  as  a  material  for  making  sharp 
instruments.  The  ancient  quarries  whence  the  Indians  procured 
this  rock  for  the  manufacture  of  instruments  and  tools,  were 
situate  at  the  Cerro  de  Navajas — that  is,  the  Mountain  of  Knives 
— in  Mexico.  M.  H.  de  Saussure,  the  descendant  of  the  great 
geologist,  was  fortunate  enough  to  meet  with,  at  this  spot,  pieces 
of  mineral  which  had  merely  been  begun  upon,  and  allowed  a 
series  of  double-edged  blades  to  be  subsequently  cut  off  them ; 
these  were  always  to  be  obtained  by  a  simple  blow  skilfully 
applied.  According  to  M.  H.  de  Saussure,  the  first  fashioning  of 
these  implements  was  confined  to  producing  a  large  six-sided 
prism,  the  vertical  corners  of  which  were  regularly  and  succes- 
sively hewn  off,  until  the  piece  left,  or  nucleus,  became  too  small 
for  the  operation  to  be  further  continued. 

Hernandez,  the  Spanish  historian,  states  that  he  has  seen  100 
blades  an  hour  manufactured  in  this  way.  Added  to  this,  the 
ancient  aborigines  of  Peru,  and  the  Guanches  of  Teneriffe,  like- 
wise carved  out  of  obsidian  both  darts  and  poniards.  And, 
lastly,  we  must  not  omit  to  mention  that  M.  Place,  one  of 


EPOCH  OF   TAMED   ANIMALS. 


161 


the  explorers  of  Nineveh,  found  on  the  site  of  this  ancient  city, 
knives  of  obsidian,  supposed  to  be  used  for  the  purpose  of  cir- 
cumcision. 

Having  considered  the  flint  instruments  peculiar  to  the  polished- 
stone  epoch,  we  must  now  turn  our  attention  to  those  made  of 
stag's  horn. 

The  valley  of  the  Somme,  which  has  furnished  such  convincing 
proof  of  the  co-existence  of  man  with  the  great  mammals  of 
extinct  species,  is  a  no  less  precious  repository  for  instruments  of 
stag's  horn  belonging  to  the  polished-stone  epoch.  The  vast 
peat-bogs  of  this  region  are  the  localities  where  these  relics  have 
been  chiefly  found.  Boucher  de  Perthes  collected  a  considerable 
number  of  them  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Abbeville. 

These  peat-bogs  are,  as  is  well  known,  former  marshes  which 
have  been  gradually  filled  up  by  the  growth  of  peat-moss  (sphag- 
num), which,  mixed  with  fallen  leaves,  wood, 
&c.,  and  being  slowly  rotted  by  the  sur- 
rounding* water,  became  converted  after  a 

o  " 

certain  time  into  that  kind  of  combustible 
matter  which  is  called  peat.  The  bogs  in 
the  valley  of  the  Somme  in  some  places 
attain  to  the  depth  of  34  feet.  In  the  lower 
beds  of  this  peat  are  found  the  weapons^ 
the  tools,  and  the  ornaments  of  the  polished- 
stone  epoch. 

Among  these  ancient  relics  we  must  men- 
tion one  very  interesting  class  ;  it  is  that 
formed  by  the  association  of  two  distinct 
component  parts,  such  as  stone  and  stag's 
horn,  or  stone  and  bone. 

The  hatchets  of  this  type  are  particularly 
remarkable ;    they    consist  of    a    piece  of 
polished  flint  half  buried  in  a  kind  of  sheath 
of  stag's  horn,  either  polished  or  rough,  as  Fig.  m.-poiished  Flint  Hat- 
the  case  may  be  (Fig.  1 1 1). 

The  middle  of  this  sheath  is  generally 
perforated  with  a  round  or  oval  hole  intended  to  receive  a  handle 
of  oak,  birch,  or  some  other  kind  of  wood  adapted  for  such  a  use. 


chet,  with  a  Sheath  of  Stag's 
Horn  fitted  for  a  Handle. 


1 62 


THE   STONE   AGE. 


Fig.  112,  taken  from  the  illustration  in  Boucher  de  Perthes' 
work  ("  Antiquites  Celtiques  et  Antediluviennes"),  represents  this 
hatchet  fitted  into  a  handle  made  of  oak. 

It  is  difficult  to  understand  how  it  was  that  a  hatchet  of  this 
kind  did  not  fall  out  of  its  sheath  in  consequence  of  any  moderately 
violent  blow  ;  for  it  seems  as  if  there  was  nothing  to  hold  it  in  its 
place.  This  observation  especially  applies  to  hatchets,  the  whole 
length  of  which — even  the  portion  covered  by  the  sheath — was 
polished ;  for  the  latter  would  certainly  slide  out  of  their  casing  with 
ease.  The  fact  is,  that  complete  specimens  are  seldom  found,  and, 
generally  speaking,  the  flints  are  separated  from  their  sheaths. 


Fig.  112. — Flint  Hatchet  fitted  into  a  Stag's-horn  Sheath,  having  an  Oak  Handle,  from 
Boucher  de  Perthes'  illustration. 

With  regard  to  the  handles,  the  nature  of  the  material  they 
were  made  from  was  unfavourable  to  their  preservation  through 
a  long  course  of  centuries ;  it  is,  therefore,  only  exceptionally  that 
we  meet  with  them,  and  even  then  they  are  always  defaced. 

Fig.  113  is  given  by  Boucher  de  Perthes,  in  his  "Antiquites 
Celtiques,"  as  the  representation  of  an  oaken  handle  found  by  him. 

A  number  of  these  sheaths  have  been  found,  which  were  provided 
at  the  end  opposite  to  the  stone  hatchet  with  strong  and  pointed 
teeth.  These  are  boars'  tusks,  firmly  buried  in  the  stag's  horn. 
These  instruments  therefore  fulfilled  a  double  purpose ;  they  cut 
or  crushed  with  one  end  and  pierced  with  the  other. 


EPOCH  OF   TAMED   ANIMALS. 


163 


Sheaths  are  also  found  which  are  not  only  provided  with  the 
boars'  tusks,  but  are  hollowed  out  at  each  end  so  as  to  hold  two 
flint  hatchets  at  once.  This  is  represented  in  Fig.  114,  from  one 
of  Boucher  de  Perthes'  illustrations. 

The  hatchet  fitted  into  a  sheath  of  stag's  horn  which  we  here 
delineate  (Fig.  1 1 5),  was  picked  up  in  the  environs  of  Aershot, 


Fig.  113.-  Hatchet-handle 
made  of  Oak. 


Fig.  114. — Stag's-horn  Sheath, 
open  at  each  end  so  as  to 
receive  two  Hatchets. 


Fig.  115.— Polished  Flint 
Hatchet  from  Belgium, 
fitted  into  a  Stag's- 
horn  Sheath. 


and  is  an  object  well  worthy  of  note ;  it  is  now  in  the  Museum 
of  Antiquities  at  Brussels.  Its  workmanship  is  perfect,  and 
superior  to  that  of  similar  instruments  found  in  the  peat-bogs  of 
the  valley  of  the  Somme. 


1 64 


THE   STONE  AGE. 


Stag's  horn  was  often  used  alone  as  a  material  for  the  manu- 
facture of  tools  which  were  not  intended  to  endure  any  very  hard 
work;  among  these  were  instruments  of  husbandry  and  gardening. 

We  here  give  representations  (Figs.  1 16, 1 17, 1 18)  from^Boucher 
de  Perthes'  illustrations,  of  certain  implements  made  of  stag's 
horn  which  appear  to  have  had  this  purpose  in  view.  It  is  re- 
marked that  they  are  not  all  perforated  for  holding  a  handle ; 
in  some  cases,  a  portion  of  the  stag's  antler  formed  the  handle. 


Fig.  1 1 6. — Gardening  Tool  made  of  Stag's 
Horn  (after  Boucher  de  Perthes). 


Fig.  117. — Gardening  Tool  made  of  Stag's 
Horn  (after  Boucher  de  Perthes). 


In  the  course  of  his  explorations  in  the  peat-bogs  of  Abbeville, 
M.  Boucher  de  Perthes  found  numerous  flakes  of  flint  of  irregular 
shapes,  the  use  of  which  he  was  unable  to  explain.  But  there 
have  also  been  discovered  in  the  same  deposits  some  long  bones 
belonging  to  mammals — tibia,  femur,  radius,  ulna — all  cut  in  a 
uniform  way,  either  in  the  middle  or  at  the  ends  ;  he  was  led  to 
imagine  that  these  bones  might  have  been  the  handles  intended 
to  hold  the  flints.  In  order  to  assure  himself  that  this  idea  was 


EPOCH  OF  TAMED   ANIMALS.  165 

well  founded,  he  took  one  of  the  bones  and  a  stone  which  came 
out  of  the  peat,  and,  having  put  them  together,  he  found  he  had 
made  a  kind  of  chisel,  well  adapted  for  cutting,  scooping  out, 
scratching  and  polishing  horn  or  wood.  He  tried  this  experiment 
again  several  times,  and  always  with  full  success.  If  the  stone 
did  not  fit  firmly  into  the  bone,  one  or  two  wooden  wedges  were 
sufficient  to  steady  it. 

After  this,  Boucher  de  Perthes  entertained  no  doubt  whatever 
that  these  bones'  had  been  formerly  employed  as  handles  for  flint 
implements.  The  same  handle  would  serve  for  several  stones, 
owing  to  the  ease  with  which  the  artisan  could  take  one  flint  out 


Fig.  1 18.— Gardening  Tool  made  of  Stag's  Horn  (after  Boucher  de  Perthes). 

and  replace  it  with  another,  by  the  aid  of  nothing  but  these 
wooden  wedges.  This  is  the  reason  why,  in  the  peat-bogs,  flints 
of  this  sort  are  always  much  more  plentiful  than  the  bone 
handles.  We  must  also  state  that  it  seems  as  if  they  took  little 
or  no  trouble  in  repairing  the  flints  when  they  were  blunted, 
knowing  how  easy  it  would  be  to  replace  them.  They  were 
thrown  away,  without  further  care  ;  hence  their  profusion. 

These  handles  are  made  of  extremely  hard  bone,  from  which 
we  may  conclude  that  they  were  applied  to  operations  requiring 
solid  tools.  Most  of  them  held  the  flint  at  one  end  only ;  but 


i66 


THE  STONE  AGE. 


some  were  open  at  both  ends,  and  would  serve  as  handles  for 
two  tools  at  once. 

Figs.  119  and  120  represent  some  of  these  flint  tools  in  bone 
handles — the  plates  are  taken  from  those  in  Boucher  de  Perthes' 
work. 

Generally  speaking,  these  handles  gave  but  little  trouble  to 
those  who  made  them.  They  were  content  with  merely  breaking 
the  bone  across,  without  even  smoothing  down  the  fracture,  and 
then  enlarging  the  medullary  hollow  which  naturally  existed ; 


Fig.  119.— Flint  Tool  in 
a  Bone  Handle. 


Fig.  120.— Flint  Tool 
with  Bone  Handle. 


Fig.  121. — Ornamented 
Bone  Handle. 


next  they  roughly  squared  or  rounded  the  end  which  was 
intended  to  be  grasped  by  the  hand. 

In  Fig.  121  we  delineate  one  of  these  bone  handles,  which  is 
much  more  carefully  fashioned  ;  it  has  been  cut  off  smooth  at 
the  open  end,  and  the  opposite  extremity  has  been  rounded  off 
into  a  knob,  which  is  ornamented  with  a  design. 

During  the  polished-stone  epoch,  as  during  that  which  pre- 
ceded it,  the  teeth  of  certain  mammals  were  used  in  the  way  of 
ornament.  But  they  were  not  content,  as  heretofore,  with 
merely  perforating  them  with  holes  and  hanging  them  in  a 


EPOCH  OF  TAMED  ANIMALS. 


167 


string  round  their  necks ;  they  were  now  wrought  with  consider- 
able care.  The  teeth  of  the  wild  boar  were  those  chiefly  selected 
for  this  purpose.  They  were  split  lengthwise,  so  as  to  render 
them  only  half  their  original  thickness,  and  were  then  polished 
and  perforated  with  holes  in  order  to  string  them. 

In  the  peat-mosses  of  the  valley  of  the  Somme  a  number  of 
boars'  tusks  have  been  found  thus  fashioned.  The  most  curious 
discovery  of  this  kind  which  has  been  made,  was  that  of  the 


Fig.  122. — Necklace  made  of  Boars'  Tusks,  longitudinally  divided. 

•object  of  which  we  give  a  sketch  in  Fig.  122.  It  was  found  in 
1834,  near  Pecquigny  (Somme),  and  is  composed  of  nineteen 
boars'  tusks  split  into  two  halves,  as  we  before  mentioned,  per- 
fectly polished,  and  perforated  at  each  end  with  a  round  hole. 
Through  these  holes  was  passed  a  string  of  some  tendinous  sub- 
.  stance,  the  remains  of  which  were,  it  is  stated,  actually  to  be  seen 
at  the  time  of  the  discovery.  A  necklace  of  this  kind  must  have 


1 68  THE  STONE  AGE. 

been  of  considerable  value,  as  it  would  have  necessitated  a  large 
amount  of  very  tedious  and  delicate  work. 

In  the  peat-bogs  near  Brussels  polished  flints  have  likewise 
been  found,  associated  with  animal  bones,  and  two  specimens  of 
the  human  humerus,  belonging  to  two  individuals. 

The  peat-bogs  of  Antwerp,  in  which  were  found  a  human 
frontal  bone,  characterised  by  its  great  thickness,  and  its  small 
surface,  have  also  furnished  fine  specimens  of  flint  knives  (Fig.. 
123),  which  are  in  no  way  inferior  to  the  best  of  those  discovered 
at  Grand- Pressigny. 


Fig.  123. — Flint  Knife,  from  the  Peat-bogs  near  Antwerp. 

On  none  of  the  instruments  of  bone  or  iron,  of  which  we  have 
been  speaking,  are  to  be  found  the  designs  which  we  have  de- 
scribed as  being  the  work  of  man  during  the  reindeer  epoch.  The 
artistic  instinct  seems  to  have  entirely  vanished.  Perhaps  the 
diluvial  catastrophe,  which  destroyed  so  many  victims,  had,  as- 
one  of  its  results,  the  effect  of  effacing  the  feeling  of  art,  by 
forcing  men  to  concentrate  their  ideas  on  one  sole  point — the 
care  of  providing  for  their  subsistence  and  defence. 

A  quantity  of  remains,  gathered  here  and  there,  bear  witness  to 
the  fact  that  in  the  polished-stone  epoch  the  use  of  pottery  was- 
pretty  widely  spread.  Most  of  the  specimens  are,  as  we  have 


EPOCH  OF  TAMED  ANIMALS.  169 

said,  nothing  but  attempts  of  a  very  rough  character,  but  still 
they  testify  to  a  certain  amount  of  progress.  The  ornamentation 
is  more  delicate  and  more  complicated.  We  notice  the  appear- 
ance of  open-work  handles,  and  projections  perforated  for  the 
purpose  of  suspension.  In  short,  there  is  a  perceptible,  though 
but  preliminary,  step  made  towards  the  real  creations  of  art. 

In  the  caves  of  Ariege,  MM.  Garrigou  and  Filhol  found  some 
remains  of  ancient  pottery  of  clay  provided  with  handles,  although 
of  a  shape  altogether  primitive.  Among  the  fragments  of  pottery 
found  by  these  savants,  there  was  one  which  measured  1 1  inches 
in  height,  and  must  have  formed  a  portion  of  a  vase  20  inches 
high.  This  vessel,  which  was  necessarily  very  heavy,  had  been 
hung  to  cords ;  this  was  proved  by  finding  on  another  portion  of 
the  same  specimen  three  holes  which  had  been  perforated  in  it. 

Agriculture. — We  have  certain  evidence  that  man,  during  the 
polished-stone  epoch,  was  acquainted  with  husbandry,  or,  in  other 
words,  that  he  cultivated  cereals.  MM.  Garrigou  and  Filhol 
found  in  the  caves  of  Ariege  more  than  twenty  millstones,  which 
could  only  have  been  used  in  grinding  corn.  These  stones  are 
from  8  to  24  inches  in  diameter. 

The  tribes,  therefore,  which,  during  the  polished-stone  epoch, 
inhabited  the  district  now  called  Ariege,  were  acquainted  with 
the  cultivation  of  corn. 

In  1869,  Dr.  Foulon-Menard  published  an  article  intended  to 
describe  a  stone  found  at  Penchasteau,  near  Nantes,  in  a  tomb 
belonging  to  the  Stone  Age.*  This  stone  is  24  inches  wide,  and 
hollowed  out  on  its  upper  face.  It  was  evidently  used  for  crush- 
ing grain  with  the  help  of  a  stone  roller,  or  merely  a  round 
pebble,  which  was  rolled  up  and  down  in  the  cavity.  The  meal 
obtained  by  this  pressure  and  friction  made  its  way  down  the 
slope  in  the  hollowing  out  of  the  stone,  and  was  caught  in  a  piece 
of  matting,  or  something  of  the  kind. 

To  enable  our  readers  to  understand  the  fact  that  an  excava- 
tion made  in  a  circular  stone  formed  the  earliest  corn-mill  in 
these  primitive  ages,  we  may  mention  that,  even  in  our  own  time, 

*  "Les  Moulins  Primitifs,"  Nantes,  1869.  Extract  from  the  "Bulletin  de  la 
Societe  Archeologique  de  Nantes." 


1 70  THE  STONE  AGE. 

this  is  the  mode  of  procedure  practised  among  certain  savage 
tribes  in  order  to  crush  various  seeds  and  corn. 

In  the  "  Voyage  du  Mississippi  a  1'Ocean,"  by  M.  Molhausen, 
we  read : — 

"  The  principal  food  of  the  Indians  consisted  of  roasted  cakes 
of  maize  and  wheat,  the  grains  of  which  had  been  pulverised 
between  two  stones!'* 

In  Livingstone's  Expedition  to  the  Zambesi  (Central  Africa), 
it  is  stated  that  "  the  corn-mills  of  the  Mangajas,  Makalolos, 
Landines,  and  other  tribes  are  composed  of  a  block  of  granite  or 
syenite,  sometimes  even  of  mica-schist,  15  to  1 8  inches  square,  by  5 
or  6  inches  thick,  and  a  piece  of  quartz,  or  some  other  rock  of 
equal  hardness,  about  the  size  of  a  half-brick  ;  one  of  the  sides 
of  this  substitute  for  a  millstone  is  convex,  so  as  to  fit  into  a 
hollow  of  a  trough-like  shape  made  in  the  large  block,  which 


Fig.  124. — Primitive  Corn-mill. 

remains  motionless.  When  the  woman  wants  to  grind  any  corn, 
she  kneels  down,  and,  taking  in  both  hands  the  convex  stone, 
she  rubs  it  up  and  down  in  the  hollow  of  the  lower  stone  with  a 
motion  similar  to  that  of  a  baker  pressing  down  his  dough  and 
rolling  it  in  front  of  him.  Whilst  rubbing  it  to  and  fro,  the 
housewife  leans  all  her  weight  on  the  smaller  stone,  and  every 
now  and  then  places  a  little  more  corn  in  the  trough.  The  latter 
is  made  sloping,  so  that  the  meal,  as  soon  as  it  is  made,  falls 
down  into  a  cloth  fixed  to  catch  it." 

Such,  therefore,  was  the  earliest  corn-mill.  We  shall  soon  see 
it  re-appear  in  another  form  ;  two  millstones  placed  one  over  the 
other,  one  being  set  in  motion  above  the  other  by  means  of  a 
wooden  handle.  This  is  the  corn-mill  of  the  bronze  epoch.  This 

*  "  Tour  du  Monde,"  p.  374,  1860. 


EPOCH  OF  TAMED  ANIMALS.  171 

type  maintained  its  place  down  to  historic  times,  as  it  constituted 
the  earliest  kind  of  mill  employed  by  the  Roman  agriculturist. 

In  order  to  represent  the  existence  of  agriculture  during  the 
polished-stone  epoch,  we  have  annexed  a  delineation  of  a  woman 
grinding  corn  into  meal  in  the  primitive  mill  (Fig.  125). 

In  the  same  figure  may  be  noticed  the  way  of  preparing  the  meal 
coming  from  the  mill  for  making  a  rough  kind  of  cake.  The  chil- 
dren are  heating  in  the  fire  some  flat  circular  stones.  When  these 
stones  are  sufficiently  heated,  they  rapidly  withdraw  them  from  the 
fire,  using  for  the  purpose  two  damp  sticks  ;  they  then  place  on 
the  stones  a  little  of  the  meal  mixed  with  water.  The  heat  of  the 
stones  sufficed  to  bake  the  meal  and  form  a  sort  of  cake  or  biscuit. 

We  may  here  state,  in  order  to  show  that  we  are  not  dealing 
with  a  mere  hypothesis,  that  it  is  just  in  this  way  that,  in  the 
poor  districts  of  Tuscany,  the  polenta  is  prepared  even  in  the 
present  day.  The  dough  made  of  chestnut-meal,  moistened  with 
water,  is  cooked  between  flat  stones  that  are  placed  one  over 
the  other  in  small  piles,  as  portrayed  in  the  annexed  plate. 

In  the  background  of  the  same  sketch  we  see  animals,  reduced 
to  the  state  of  domestic  cattle,  being  driven  towards  the  group  at 
work.  By  this  particular  feature  we  have  wished  to  point  out 
that  the  polished-stone  epoch  was  also  that  of  the  domestication 
of  animals,  and  that  even  at  this  early  period  the  sheep,  the  dog, 
and  the  horse  had  been  tamed  by  man,  and  served  him  either  as 
auxiliaries  or  companions. 

The  traces  of  agriculture  which  we  have  remarked  on  as  exist- 
ing in  the  caves  of  Ariege,  are  also  found  in  other  parts  of  France. 
Round  the  hearths  in  the  department  of  Puy-de-D6me,  MM. 
Pommerol  discovered  carbonised  wheat  intermingled  with  pottery 
and  flint  instruments.  The  men  of  the  period  we  are  now  con- 
sidering no  longer  devoted  themselves  exclusively  to  the  pursuits 
of  hunting  and  fishing.  They  now  began  to  exercise  the  noble 
profession  of  agriculture,  which  was  destined  to  be  subsequently 
the  chief  source  of  national  wealth. 

Navigation. — The  first  origin  of  the  art  of  navigation  must  be 
ascribed  to  the  polished-stone  epoch.  With  regard  to  this  sub- 
ject, let  us  pay  attention  to  what  is  said  on  the  point  by  M.  G.  de 


172  THE  STONE  AGE. 

Mortillet,  curator  at  the  Archaeological  and  Pre-historic  Museum 
of  Saint-Germain — one  of  the  best-informed  men  we  have  in  all 
questions  relating  to  the  antiquity  of  man. 

In  M.  de  Mortillet' s  opinion,  navigation, both  marine  and  inland, 
was  in  actual  existence  during  the  polished-stone  epoch. 

The  earliest  boats  that  were  made  by  man  consisted  simply  of 
great  trunks  of  trees,  shaped  on  the  outside,  and  hollowed  out  in 
the  interior.  They  were  not  provided  with  any  rest  or  rowlocks 
for  the  oars  or  paddles,  which  were  wielded  by  both  hands.  In 
hollowing  out  the  tree  they  used  both  their  stone  implements 
and  also  the  action  of  fire. 

In  the  earliest  boats,  the  trunk  of  the  tree,  cut  through  at  the 
two  ends  as  well  as  their  imperfect  tools  allowed,  preserved  its 
original  outward  form.  The  boat,  in  fact,  was  nothing  but  the 
trunk  of  a  tree  first  burnt  out  and  then  chipped  on  the  inside  by 
some  cutting  instrument,  that  is,  by  the  stone-hatchet. 

Some  improvement  subsequently  took  place  in  making  them. 
The  outside  of  the  tree  was  also  chipped,  and  its  two  ends,  instead 
of  being  cut  straight  through,  were  made  to  terminate  in  a  point. 
In  order  to  give  it  more  stability  in  the  water,  and  to  prevent  it 
from  capsizing,  it  was  dressed  equally  all  over,  and  the  bottom  of 
the  canoe  was  scooped  out.  Cross-stays  were  left  in  the  interior 
to  give  the  boat  more  solidity,  and,  perhaps,  also  to  serve  as  a 
support  to  the  back,  or,  more  probably,  to  the  feet  of  the  rowers, 
who  sat  in  the  bottom  of  the  canoe. 

Sails  must  soon  have  been  added  to  these  means  of  nautical  pro- 
gression. But  it  would  be  a  difficult  matter  to  fix  any  precise  date  for 
this  important  discovery,  which  was  the  point  of  transition  between 
elementary  and  primitive  navigation,  and  more  important  voyages. 
This  progress  could  not  have  been  made  without  the  help  of  metals. 

In  an  article  entitled  "Origine  de  la  Navigation  et  de  la  Peche," 
M.  de  Mortillet  passes  in  review  all  the  discoveries,  which  have 
been  made  in  different  countries,  of  the  earliest  boats  belonging 
to  pre-historic  man. 

After  stating  that  the  Museum  of  Copenhagen  contains  draw- 
ings of  three  ancient  canoes,  he  goes  on  to  say  : — 

"  The  first  canoe  is  the  half-trunk  of  a  tree  17  inches  wide, 
cut  straight  at  the  two  ends,  about  7  feet  in  length,  and  hollowed 


EPOCH  OF  TAMED  ANIMALS.  173 

out  in  a  trough-like  shape.     This  canoe  much  resembles  that  of 
Switzerland. 

"The  second  was  about  10  feet  in  length,  one  end  terminating 
in  a  point,  the  other  more  rounded.  It  was  formed  of  the  trunk 
of  a  tree  hollowed  out  into  two  compartments,  a  kind  of  cross- 
stay  or  seat  being  left  at  a  point  about  one-third  of  the  length 
from  the  widest  end. 

"  The  third  canoe,  No.  295,  likewise  made  of  the  trunk  of  a 
tree,  was  much  longer,  having  a  length  of  at  least  13  feet,  and  was 
terminated  by  a  point  at  both  ends.  At  the  sharpest  end,  the 
hollow  is  finished  off  squarely,  and  there  is  also  a  small  triangular 
seat  at  the  extremity.  Two  cross-stays  were  left  in  the  interior. 

"  These  three  canoes  are  classed  in  the  bronze  series ;  a  note 
of  interrogation  or  doubt  is,  however,  affixed  to  the  two  latter. 

"  Ireland,  like  Scandinavia,  has  a  history  which  does  not  go 
back  very  far  into  the  remote  past ;  like  Scandinavia,  too,  Ireland 
has  been  one  of  the  first  to  collect  with  care  not  only  the  monu- 
ments, but  even  the  slightest  relics  of  remote  antiquity  and  of 
pre-historic  times.  The  Royal  Irish  Academy  has  collected  at 
Dublin  a  magnificent  Museum,  and  the  praiseworthy  idea  has 
also  been  put  in  practice  of  publishing  a  catalogue  illustrated 
with  626  plates. 

"  In  these  collections  there  are  three  ancient  canoes.  The  first 
is  about  23  feet  long,  31  inches  wide,  and  12  inches  deep, 
and  is  hollowed  out  of  the  trunk  of  an  oak,  which  must  have 
been  at  least  4^4,  feet  in  diameter.  This  boat,  which  came  from 
the  bogs  of  Cahore,  on  the  coast  of  Wexford,  is  roughly  squared 
underneath.  One  of  the  ends  is  rounded  and  is  slightly  raised  : 
the  other  is  cut  across  at  right  angles,  and  closed  with  a  piece  let 
in  and  fitted  into  grooves  which  were  caulked  with  bark.  In  the 
interior  there  are  three  cross-stays  cut  out  of  the  solid  oak. 

"  The  interior,  at  the  time  the  canoe  was  discovered,  contained 
a  wooden  vessel,  intended  to  bale  out  the  boat,  and  two  rollers, 
probably  meant  to  assist  in  conveying  it  down  to  the  sea. 

"  The  second  is  a  canoe  made  of  one  piece  of  oak,  rather  more 
than  23  feet  long,  about  12  inches  wide,  and  8  inches  deep.  It 
terminates  in  a  point  at  both  ends,  and  contains  three  cross-stays 
cut  out  of  the  solid  wood,  and  a  small  terminal  triangular  seat. 


I74  THE  STONE  AGE. 

"  The  third,  likewise  made  of  one  piece,  is  rather  more  than  20 
feet  long  and  about  21  inches  wide.  On  each  side  the  wood  is 
cut  out  so  as  to  receive  a  seat  This  boat  appears  less  ancient 
than  the  others,  although  these  may  not  have  belonged  to  any 
very  remote  antiquity.  In  fact,  Ware  states  that  in  his  time 
there  were  still  to  be  seen  on  some  of  the  Irish  rivers  canoes 
hollowed  out  of  a  single  trunk  of  oak. 

"  It  is  also  well  known  that  the  lacustrine  habitations  con- 
structed on  the  artificial  islands  called  Crannoges,  existed  to  a 
late  period  in  Ireland.  All  the  boats  found  round  these  island- 
dwellings  are  canoes  made  all  in  one  piece  and  hollowed  out  of 
the  trunks  of  large  trees. 

"  The  trough-shaped  canoe,  consisting  merely  of  the  trunk  of  a 
tree  cut  straight  through  at  the  two  ends,  and  in  no  way  squared 
on  the  outside,  also  exists  in  Ireland.  A  very  singular  variety 
has  been  found  in  the  county  of  Monaghan  ;*  at  the  two  ends 
are  two  projections  or  handles,  which  were  probably  used  for 
carrying  the  boat  from  one  place  to  another,  or  to  draw  it  up 
upon  the  beach  after  a  voyage. 

"  According  to  Mr.  John  Buchanan,  quoted  by  Sir  C.  Lyell,f  at 
least  seventeen  canoes  have  been  found  in  the  low  ground  along 
the  margin  of  the  Clyde  at  Glasgow.  Mr.  Buchanan  examined 
several  of  them  before  they  were  dug  out.  Five  of  them  were 
found  buried  in  the  silt  under  the  streets  of  Glasgow.  One  canoe 
was  discovered  in  a  vertical  position  with  the  prow  upwards,  as  if 
it  had  foundered  in  a  tempest ;  it  contained  no  small  quantity  of 
sea-shells.  Twelve  other  canoes  were  found  about  100  yards  from 
the  river,  at  the  average  depth  of  about  19  feet  below  the  surface 
of  the  ground,  or  about  7  feet  below  high-water  mark.  A  few  only 
of  them  were  found  at  a  depth  of  no  more  than  4  or  5  feet,  and 
consequently  more  than  20  feet  above  the  present  level  of  the  sea. 
One  was  stuck  into  the  sand  at  an  angle  of  45°;  another  had  been 
turned  over  and  lay  keel  upwards  ;  the  others  were  in  a  horizontal 
position,  as  if  they  had  sunk  in  still  water. 

"  Almost  every  one  of  these  ancient  boats  had  been  formed  of 

»  Shirley's  "  Account  of  the  Territory  of  Farney." 

tj.  Buchanan,  "  British  Association  Reports,"  1855,  p.  80.     Sir  C.  Lyell,  "An- 
tiquity of  Man,"  p."  48. 


s 


EPOCH  OF  TAMED  ANIMALS.  175 

a  single  trunk  of  oak,  and  hollowed  out  with  some  blunt  instru- 
ment, probably  stone  hatchets,  assisted  also  by  the  action  of  fire. 
A  few  of  them  presented  clean-made  cuts,  evidently  produced  by 
a  metallic  tool.  Two  of  them  were  constructed  of  planks.  The 
most  elaborate  of  the  number  bore  the  traces  of  square  metal 
nails,  which,  however,  had  entirely  disappeared.  In  one  canoe 
was  found  a  diorite  hatchet,  and  at  the  bottom  of  another,  a  cork 
bung,  which  certainly  implies  relations  with  southern  France, 
Spain,  or  Italy. 

"  The  Swiss  lakes,  with  their  lacustrine  habitations,  have  fur- 
nished numerous  specimens  of  canoes.  Dr.  Keller,  in  his  fifth 
Report  on  Lake  Dwellings  (Plate  X.  Fig.  23),  represents  a  canoe 
from  Robenhausen  ;  it  is  the  half-trunk  of  a  tree  12  feet  long  and 
29  inches  wide,  hollowed  out  to  a  depth  of  from  6  to  7  inches  only. 
Taking  the  centre  as  the  widest  part,  this  trunk  has  been  chipped 
off  so  as  to  taper  towards  the  two  points,  which  are  rounded.  It 
is,  however,  very  probable  that  the  whole  of  this  work  was  exe- 
cuted with  stone  implements  ;  for  the  primitive  settlement  of 
Robenhausen,  situated  in  a  peat-bog  near  the  small  lake  Pfeffikon, 
in  the  canton  of  Zurich,  although  very  rich  in  many  kinds  of 
objects,  has  not,  up  to  the  present  time,  furnished  us  with  any 
metal  instruments. 

"  In  his  first  report  (Plate  IV.  Fig.  21),  Dr.  Keller  had  given  the 
sketch  of  another  canoe  which  came  from  the  Lake  of  Bienne.  Like 
the  first,  mentioned  by  M.  Worsaae,  it  is  the  half  of  the  trunk  of  a 
tree  cut  almost  straight  through,  its  two  ends  hollowed  out  inside 
in  the  shape  of  a  trough,  the  exterior  being  left  entirely  unwrought. 

"Professor  Desor  mentions  several  canoes  found  in  the  Lake  of 
Bienne.  One  of  them,  near  the  island  Saint-Pierre,  was  still  full  of 
stones.  According  to  M.  Desor,  the  builders  of  the  lacustrine  habi- 
tations during  the  polished-stone  epoch,  in  order  to  consolidate 
the  piles  which  were  intended  to  support  their  dwellings,  were 
accustomed  to  bank  them  up  with  stones  which  they  fetched  in 
boats  from  the  shore  :  the  bottom  of  the  lake  being  completely 
devoid  of  them.  The  canoe  found  at  the  isle  of  Saint-Pierre  had 
therefore  sunk  to  the  bottom  with  its  cargo,  and  thus  may  be 
dated  back  to  the  polished-stone  epoch.  M.  Troyon*  gives  some 

*  "  Habitations  Lacustres  des  Temps  anciens  et  modernes,"  pp.  119,  159,  166. 


176  THE  STONE  AGE. 

still  more  circumstantial  details  as  to  this  canoe.  It  is  partly 
buried  in  the  mud  at  the  northern  angle  of  the  isle,  and  is  made 
of  a  single  piece  of  the  trunk  of  an  oak  of  large  dimensions  ;  it 
is  not  much  less  than  49  feet  long,  with  a  breadth  of  from  3  J  feet 
to  4  feet. 

"  M.  Desor,  in  his  Palafittes,  informs  us  that  the  Museum  of 
Neuchatel  has  lately  been  enriched  by  the  addition  of  a  canoe 
which  was  discovered  in  the  lake  ;  unfortunately  it  was  dread- 
fully warped  in  drying. 

"  Also  M.  Troyon,  in  his  '  Habitations  Lacustres/  speaks  of 
several  canoes  at  Estavayer  and  Morges. 

"  Estavayer  is  situated  on  the  Lake  of  Neuchatel.  There  are 
two  settlements  near  it,  one  of  the  Stone  Age,  and  one  of  the 
Bronze  Age.  One  canoe  is  still  lying  at  the  bottom  of  the  lake, 
near  these  settlements.  Another  was  brought  out  of  the  water 
by  the  fishermen  some  years  ago  ;  it  was  about  10  feet  in  length 
and  2  feet  in  width.  The  end  which  had  been  preserved  was  cut 
to  a  point  and  slightly  turned  upwards. 

"Morges  is  on  the  Lake  of  Geneva,  in  the  canton  of  Vaud. 
MM.  Forel  discovered  there  two  interesting  settlements  of  the 
Bronze  Age.  Two  canoes  were  found.  According  to  M.  Troyon, 
one  of  them,  which  had  been  carried  up  on  to  the  bank,  was  not 
long  before  it  was  destroyed.  It  was  formed  of  the  trunk  of  an 
oak,  hollowed  out  like  a  basin.  The  other  still  lay  near  some 
piles  in  1 3  to  15  feet  of  water.  One  portion  of  it  is  buried  in  the 
sand,  the  other  part,  which  is  not  covered,  measures  about  10  feet 
in  length  by  2  feet  in  width.  It  terminates  in  a  point,  and 
has  been  cut  out  so  as  to  provide  a  kind  of  seat,  taken  out  of  the 
thickness  of  the  wood  at  the  end,  just  as  in  the  third  canoe  repre- 
sented in  the  Catalogue  of  the  Copenhagen  Museum. 

"  In  France,  too,  several  canoes  have  been  found  which  date 
back  to  pre-historic  times. 

"On  the  6th  of  January,  1860,  the  labourers  who  were  working 
at  the  fortifications  which  the  engineers  were  making  at  Abbeville, 
found  a  canoe  in  the  place  called  Saint-Jean-des-Pres,  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  canal ;  it  was  discovered  in  the  peat,  36  feet  below 
the  road  and  about  220  yards  from  the  railway  station.  It  was 
made  out  of  a  single  stick  of  oak,  and  was  about  22  feet  in  length; 


EPOCH  OF  TAMED  ANIMALS.  177 

its  ends  were  square  and  cut  in  a  slope,  so  that  its  upper  surface 
was  8  feet  longer  than  its  bottom,  which  was  flattened  off  to  a 
width  of  about  14  inches.  The  greatest  width  of  its  upper 
surface,  the  widest  part  being  placed  at  about  one-third  of  its 
length,  measured  nearly  3  feet ;  from  this  point  the  canoe  con- 
tracted in  width,  and  was  not  more  than  18  inches  in  width  at 
the  furthest  end.  Now,  as  no  tree  exists  which  diminishes  to 
this  extent  in  diameter  on  so  short  a  length,  we  must  conclude 
that  the  trunk  which  formed  the  canoe  must  have  been  shaped 
outside. 

"  Two  projections  about  4  inches  in  thickness,  placed  6^  feet 
from  the  narrowest  end,  and  forming  one  piece  with  the  sides  and 
the  bottom,  which  in  this  part  are  very  thick,  left  between  them 
an  empty  space,  which  was  probably  intended  to  fit  against  the 
two  sides  of  a  piece  of  wood  cut  square  at  the  bottom  and  meant 
to  serve  as  a  mast.  The  deepest  internal  hollow  had  not  more 
than  10  inches  in  rise,  and  the  side,  which  at  the  upper  part  was 
not  more  than  an  inch  in  thickness,  followed  the  natural  curve 
of  the  trunk,  and  united  with  the  much  thicker  portion  at  the 
bottom.  This  canoe,  although  it  was  completely  uncovered  and 
still  remained  in  a  very  good  state  of  preservation,  has  not  been 
got  out  from  the  place  in  which  it  lay. 

"  In  1834,  another  canoe  was  discovered  at  Estrebceuf,  33  feet 
long,  about  21  inches  wide,  and  18  inches  deep.  The  bottom 
was  flat,  the  sides  cut  vertically  both  within  and  without,  which 
gave  it  nearly  the  shape  of  a  squared  trough.  In  its  widest  part 
it  bore  some  signs  of  having  carried  a  mast.  It  was  conveyed 
to  the  Museum  at  Abbeville  and  became  completely  rotten ; 
nothing  now  is  left  but  shapeless  remains. 

"  The  Abbe  Cochet  relates  that  between  1788  and  1800,  during 
the  excavation  of  the  basin  of  La  Barre  at  Havre,  at  1 1  feet  in 
depth,  a  canoe  was  discovered  more  than  44  feet  in  length,  and 
hollowed  out  of  one  trunk  of  a  tree.  The  two  ends  were  pointed 
and  solid,  and  the  interior  was  strengthened  with  curved  stays 
formed  out  of  the  solid  wood.  This  canoe  was  found  to  be  made 
of  elm,  and  was  hollowed  out  to  a  depth  of  nearly  4  feet.  It  was 
in  so  good  a  state  of  preservation,  that  it  bore  being  carried  to  a 
spot  behind  the  engineer's  house  on  the  south  jetty ;  but  when 

N 


i;8  THE  STONE  AfE. 

it  was  deposited  there,  it  gradually  wasted  away  by  the  successive 
action  of  the  rain  and  sun. 

"  The  same  archaeologist  also  mentions  another  canoe,  with  a 
keel  of  from  1 6  to  20  feet  long,  which  was  discovered  in  the  year 
1680,  at  Monteviliers,  in  the  filled-up  ditches  known  under  the 
name  of  La  Bergue. 

"The  Archaeological  Museum  of  Dijon  also  contains  a  canoe 
found  in  the  gravel  in  the  bed  of  the  Loue,  on  the  boundaries  of  the 
department  of  Jura,  between  Dole  and  Salins.  It  is  made  of  a 
single  colossal  trunk  of  oak,  shaped,  in  M.  Baudot's  opinion,  by 
means  of  fire.  Its  present  length  is  17  feet,  and  its  width,  2  feet 
4  inches ;  but  it  has  become  much  less  in  the  process  of  drying. 
Some  iron  braces  which  were  fixed  to  keep  the  wood  in  position 
plainly  showed  that  the  width  had  diminished  at  least  6  inches. 
In  the  interior,  the  traces  of  two  seats  or  supports,  which  had 
been  left  in  the  solid  wood,  in  order  to  give  strength  to  the  canoe, 
might  be  very  distinctly  seen.  The  first  was  about  a  yard  from 
one  end,  the  other  5^  feet  from  the  other.  Both  extremities 
terminate  in  a  point,  one  end  being  much  sharper  and  longer 
than  the  other. 

"  At  the  Museum  of  Lyons  there  is  a  canoe  which  was  found 
in  the  gravel  of  the  Rhone,  near  the  bridge  of  Cordon,  in  the  de- 
partment of  Ain.  It  is  41  feet  in  length,  and  hollowed  out  of  a 
single  trunk  of  oak,  tapering  off  at  the  two  ends.  The  middle  of 
it  is  squared,  and  the  interior  is  strengthened  by  two  braces  left 
in  the  solid  wood. 

"  Lastly,  we  must  mention  the  canoe  that  was  dug  out  of  the  bed 
of  the  Seine  in  Paris,  and  presented  by  M.  Forgeais  to  the  Emperor. 
It  is  now  in  the  Museum  of  Saint-Germain.  It  was  made  of  a  single 
trunk  of  oak  and  had  been  skilfully  wrought  on  the  outside,  termi- 
nating in  a  point  at  both  ends.  This  canoe  was  bedded  in  the  mud 
and  gravel  at  the  extremity  of  the  Cite,  on  the  Notre-Dame  side. 
Close  by  a  worked  flint  was  met  with,  and  various  bronze  weapons ; 
among  others,  a  helmet  and  several  swords  were  also  found.  In  the 
beds  of  rivers  objects  belonging  to  different  epochs  readily  get 
mixed  up.  This  flint  appears  to  have  accidentally  come  thither  ; 
the  bronze  arms,  on  the  contrary,  seem  to  mark  the  date  of  the 
canoe."* 

*  "  Origine  de  la  Navigation  et  de  la  Peche,"  pp.  II— 21.     Paris,  1867. 


Fig.   127. — The  earliest  regular  Conflicts  between  Men  of  the  Stone  Age  ;  or  the  Entrenched 
Camp  of  Furfooz.     (Page  178.) 


EPOCH  OF  TAMED  ANIMALS.  179 

We  have  previously  spoken  of  tine  primitive  workshop  of  human 
industry,  of  which,  indeed,  we  gave  a  design.  In  contrast  to  this 
peaceful  picture,  we  may  also  give  a  representation  of  the  evidences 
which  have  been  preserved,  even  to  our  own  days,  of  the  earliest 
means  of  attack  and  defence  constituting  regular  war  among 
nations.  War  and  battles  must  have  doubtless  taken  their  rise 
almost  simultaneously  with  the  origin  of  humanity  itself.  The 
hatred  and  rivalry  which  first  sprang  up  between  individuals  and 
families — hatred  and  rivalry  which  must  have  existed  from  all 
time — gradually  extended  to  tribes,  and  then  to  whole  nations, 
and  were  outwardly  expressed  in  armed  invasion,  pillage,  and 
slaughter.  These  acts  of  violence  were,  in  very  early  days, 
reduced  to  a  system  in  the  art  of  war — that  terrible  expedient 
from  which  even  modern  nations  have  not  been  able  to  escape. 

In  order  to  find  the  still  existing  evidence  of  the  wars  which  took 
place  among  men  in  the  Stone  Age,  we  must  repair  to  that  portion 
of  Europe  which  is  now  called  Belgium.  Yes,  even  in  the  Stone 
Age,  at  a  date  far  beyond  all  written  record,  the  people  of  this 
district  already  were  in  the  habit  of  making  war,  either  among 
themselves,  or  against  other  tribes  invading  them  from  other  lands. 
This  fact  is  proved  by  the  fortified  enclosures,  or  entrenched  camps, 
which  have  been  discovered  by  MM.  Hannour  and  Himelette. 
These  camps  are  those  of  Furfooz,  Pont-de-Bonn,  Simon,  Jemelle, 
Hastedon,  and  Poilvache. 

All  these  different  camps  possess  certain  characteristics  in  com- 
mon. They  are  generally  established  on  points  overhanging  valleys, 
on  a  mass  of  rock  forming  a  kind  of  headland,  which  is  united  to 
the  rest  of  the  country  by  a  narrow  neck  of  land.  A  wide  ditch 
was  dug  across  this  narrow  tongue  of  land,  and  the  whole  camp  was 
surrounded  by  a  thick  wall  of  stones,  simply  piled  one  upon  another, 
without  either  mortar  or  cement.  At  the  camp  of  Hastedon,  near 
Namur,  this  wall,  which  was  still  in  a  good  state  of  preservation  at 
the  time  it  was  described,  measured  10  feet  in  width,  and  about 
the  same  in  height.  When  an  attack  was  made,  the  defenders, 
assembled  within  the  enclosure,  rained  down  on  their  assailants 
stones  torn  away  from  their  wall,  which  thus  became  at  the  same 
time  both  a  defensive  and  offensive  work  (Fig.  127). 

These  entrenched  positions  were  so  well  chosen  that  most  of  them 
continued  to  be  occupied  during  the  age  which  followed.  We  may 


i8o  THE  STONE  AGE. 

mention,  as  an  instance,  the  camp  of  Poilvache.  After  having  been 
a  Roman  citadel  it  was  converted  in  the  middle  ages  into  a  strongly 
fortified  castle,  which  was  not  destroyed  until  the  fifteenth  century. 

The  camps  of  Hastedon  and  Furfooz  were  likewise  utilised  by 
the  Romans. 

Over  the  whole  enclosure  of  these  ancient  camps  worked  flints 
and  remains  of  pottery  have  been  found — objects  which  are  suffi- 
cient to  testify  to  the  former  presence  of  primitive  man.  The 
enormous  ramparts  of  these  camps  also  tend  to  show  that  pre- 
historic man  must  have  existed  in  comparatively  numerous  asso- 
ciations at  the  various  spots  where  these  works  are  found. 


Fig.  128. — Flint  Arrow-Head,  from  Civita-Nova  (Italy). 

If  we  were  to  enter  into  a  detailed  study  of  the  vestiges  of  the 
polished-stone  epoch  existing  in  the  other  countries  of  Europe, 
we  should  be  led  into  a  repetition  of  much  that  we  have  already 
stated  with  regard  to  the  districts  now  forming  France  and 
Belgium.  Over  a  great  portion  of  Europe  we  should  find  the 
same  mode  of  life,  the  same  manners  and  customs,  and  the  same 
degree  of  nascent  civilisation.  From  the  scope,  therefore,  of  our 
present  work,  we  shall  not  make  it  our  task  to  take  each  country 
into  special  consideration. 


EPOCH  OF  TAMED  ANIMALS.  181 

We  will  content  ourselves  with  stating  that  the  caves  of  Old 
Castile  in  Spain,  which  were  explored  by  M.  Ed.  Lartet,  have  fur- 
nished various  relics  of  the  reindeer  and  polished-stone  epochs. 
Also  in  the  provinces  of  Seville  and  Badajos,  polished  hatchets 
have  been  found,  made  for  the  most  part  of  dioritic  rocks. 

Numerous  vestiges  of  the  same  epoch  have,  too,  been  dis- 
covered in  various  provinces  of  Italy. 

We  give  in  Fig.  128  the  sketch  of  a  very  remarkable  arrow-head 
found  in  the  province  of  Civita-Nova  (the  former  kingdom  of 
Naples).  It  is  provided  with  a  short  stem  with  lateral  grooves,  so 
as  to  facilitate  the  point  being  fitted  into  a  wooden  shaft. 

Elba,  too,  was  surveyed  by  M.  Raffaelle  Foresi,  who  found  in  this 
Mediterranean  isle  a  large  quantity  of  arrows,  knives,  saws,  scrapers, 
&c.,  formed  of  flint,  jasper,  obsidian,  and  even  rock  crystal.  There 
were  also  found  in  the  Isle  of  Elba  workshops  for  shaping  flints. 
Great  Britain, Wurtemburg,Hungary,Poland,and  Russia  all  furnish 
us  with  specimens  of  polished  stone  instruments ;  but,  for  the  reason 
whiclrwe-stated  above,  it  would  be  superfluous  to  dwell  upon  them. 
^We  shall  now  pass  on  to  an  examination  of  the  type  of  the 
human  race  which  existed  among  the  northern  nations  of  Europe 
during  the  polished-stone  age. 

There  is  a  cavern  of  Ariege  which  belongs  to  the  polished-stone 
epoch,  and  has  been  explored  by  MM.  Garrigou  and  Filhol — this 
is  the  cavern  of  Lombrive  or  des  Eschelles ;  the  latter  name  being 
given  it  because  it  is  divided  into  two  portions  placed  at  such  very 
different  levels  that  the  help  of  five  long  ladders  is  required  in 
order  to  pass  from  one  to  the  other.  This  cave  has  become  in- 
teresting from  the  fact  that  it  has  furnished  a  large  quantity  of 
human  bones,  belonging  to  individuals  of  both  sexes  and  every 
age  ;  also  two  entire  skulls,  which  M.  Garrigou  has  presented  to 
the  Anthropological  Society  of  Paris. 

These  two  skulls,  which  appear  to  have  belonged,  one  to  a  child 
of  eight  to  ten  years  of  age,  the  other  to  a  female,  present  a  some- 
what peculiar  shape.  The  forehead,  which  is  high  in  the  centre, 
is  low  at  the  sides ;  and  the  orbits  of  the  eyes  and  also  the 
hollows  of  the  cheeks  are  deep. 

We  shall  not.  enter  into  the  diverse  and  contrary  hypotheses 
which  have  been  advanced  by  MM.  Vogt,  Broca,  Pruner-Bey,  Gar- 


1 82  THE  STONE  AGE. 

rigou,  and  Filhol,  in  order  to  connect  the  skulls  found  in  the  cave 
of  Ariege  with  the  present  races  of  the  human  species.  This  ethno- 
logical question  is  very  far  from  having  been  decided  in  any  uni- 
form way ;  and  so  it  will  always  be,  as  long  as  scientific  men  are 
compelled  to  base  their  opinions  on  a  limited  number  of  skulls, 
which  are,  moreover,  always  incomplete  :  each  savant  being  free 
to  interpret  their  features  according  to  his  own  system. 

Neither  in  the  Danish  kitchen-middens  nor  in  the  lower  beds  of 
the  peat-bogs  have  any  human  bones  been  discovered ;  but  the 


Fig.  129. — The  Borreby  Skull. 

tombs  in  Denmark  belonging  to  the  polished-stone  epoch  have 
furnished  a  few  human  skulls  which,  up  to  a  certain  point,  enable 
us  to  estimate  the  intellectual  condition  and  affinities  of  the  race 
of  men  who  lived  in  these  climates.  We  may  particularly  men- 
tion the  skull  found  in  the  tumulus  at  Borreby,  in  Denmark, 
which  has  been  studied  with  extreme  care  by  Mr.  Busk. 

This  skull  (Fig.  129)  presents  a  somewhat  remarkable  similarity 
to  that  of  Neanderthal,  of  which  we  have  spoken  in  a  previous 
chapter.  The  superciliary  ridges  are  very  prominent,  the  forehead 


EPOCH  OF  TAMED  ANIMALS.  183 

is  retiring,  the  occiput  is  short  and  sloped  forward.  It  might, 
therefore,  find  its  origin  among  the  races  of  which  the  skulls  of 
Neanderthal  and  Borreby  are  the  representatives  and  the  relics, 
and  the  latter  might  well  be  the  descendants  of  the  former. 

Anthropologists  have  had  much  discussion  about  the  question, 
To  what  particular  human  race  of  the  present  time  may  the  skulls 
found  in  the  tumuhis  at  Borreby  be  considered  to  be  allied  ?  But 
all  these  discussions  are  deficient  in  those  elements  on  which  any 
serious  and  definite  argument  might  be  founded.  It  would,  there- 
fore, be  going  beyond  our  purpose  should  we  reproduce  them 
here.  If,  in  the  sketch  of  the  Borreby  skull,  we  place  before  the 
eyes  of  our  readers  the  type  of  the  human  cranium  which  existed 
during  the  period  of  the  Stone  Age,  our  only  object  is  to  prove 
that  the  primitive  Northerner  resembles  the  present  race  of  man, 
both  in  the  beauty  and  in  the  regularity  of  the  shape  of  his  skull ; 
also,  in  order  once  more  to  recall  to  mind  how  false  and  trivial 
must  the  judgment  be  of  those  short-sighted  savants  who  would 
establish  a  genealogical  filiation  between  man  and  the  ape. 

As  we  stated  in  the  Introduction  to  this  volume,  a  mere  glance 
cast  upon  this  skull  is  sufficient  to  bring  to  naught  all  that  has 
been  written  and  propounded  touching  the  organic  consanguinity 
which  is  asserted  to  exist  between  man  and  the  ape,  to  say 
nothing  of  the  objects  produced  by  primitive  man — objects  which, 
in  this  work,  we  are  studying  in  all  necessary  detail.  An  examina- 
tion of  the  labours  of  primitive  man  is  the  best  means  of  proving 
— every  other  consideration  being  set  aside — that  a  great  abyss 
exists  between  him  and  the  animal ;  this  is  the  best  argument 
against  our  pretended  simial  origin,  as  it  is  called  by  those  who 
seek  to  veil  their  absurd  ideas  under  grand  scientific  phrases. 


1 84  THE  STONE  AGE. 


CHAPTER    III. 

Tombs  and  Mode  of  Interment  during  the  Polished-stone  Epoch —  Tumuli  and  other 
sepulchral  Monuments  formerly  called  Celtic — Labours  of  MM.  Alexandra  Bertrand 
and  Bonstetten — Funeral  Customs. 

HAVING  in  our  previous  chapters  described  and  delineated  both 
the  weapons  and  instruments  produced  by  the  rudimentary  manu- 
facturing skill  of  man  during  the  polished-stone  epoch ;  having 
also  introduced  to  notice  the  types  of  the  human  race  during  this 
period  ;  we  now  have  to  speak  of  their  tombs,  their  mode  of  inter- 
ment, and  all  the  facts  connected  with  their  funeral  customs. 

A  fortunate  and  rather  strange  circumstance  has  both  facilitated 
and  given  a  degree  of  certainty  to  the  information  and  ideas  we 
are  about  to  lay  before  our  readers.  The  tombs  of  the  men  of  the 
polished-stone  epoch — their  funeral  monuments — have  been 
thoroughly  studied,  described,  and  ransacked  by  archaeologists 
and  antiquarians,  who  for  many  years  past  have  made  them  the 
subject  of  a  multitude  of  publications  and  learned  dissertations. 
In  fact,  these  tombs  are  nothing  but  the  dolmens,  or  the  so-called 
Celtic  and  Druidical  monuments ;  but  they  by  no  means  belong, 
as  has  always  been  thought,  to  any  historical  period — that  is,  to 
the  times  of  the  Celts,  for  they  go  back  to  a  much  more  remote 
antiquity — the  pre-historic  period  of  the  polished-stone  age. 

This  explanatory  datum  having  been  taken  into  account,  we 
shall  now  study  the  dolmens  and  other  so-called  megalithic 
monuments — the  grand  relics  of  an  epoch  buried  in  the  night  of 
time  ;  those  colossal  enigmas  which  impose  upon  our  reason  and 
excite  to  the  very  highest  pitch  the  curiosity  of  men  of  science. 

Dolmens  are  monuments  composed  of  a  great  block  or  slab  of 
rock,  more  or  less  flat  in  their  shape  according  to  the  country  in 


EPOCH  OF  TAMED  ANIMALS. 


185 


which  they  are  situate,  placed  horizontally  on  a  certain  number 
of  stones  which  are  reared  up  perpendicularly  to  serve  as  its 
supports. 


Fi.j.  130. — Danish  Dolmen. 

This  kind  of  sepulchral  chamber  was  usually  covered  by  earth, 
which  formed  a  hillock  over  it.  But  in  the  course  of  time  this 
earth  often  disappeared,  leaving  nothing  but  the  naked  stones  of 
the  sepulchral  monument. 


Fig.  131.— Dolmen  at  Assies  (Department  of  Lot). 

These  are  the  bare  stones  which  have  been  taken  for  stone 
altars,  being  referred  to  the  religious  worship  of  the  Gauls.  The 
supposed  Druidical  altars  are,  in  fact,  nothing  but  ruined  dolmens. 
The  purpose,  therefore,  for  which  they  were  elevated  was  not,  as 
has  always  been  stated,  to  serve  as  the  scene  of  the  sacrifices  of  a 
cruel  religion  ;  for,  at  the  present  day,  it  is  completely  proved 
that  the  dolmens  were  the  tombs  of  a  pre-historic  epoch. 

These  tombs  were  intended  to  receive  several  dead  bodies.  The 
corpses  were  placed  in  the  chamber  which  was  formed  by  the 
upper  slab  and  the  supports.  Some  of  these  chambers  had  two 
stages  or  stories,  and  then  furnished  a  larger  number  of  sepulchres. 


1 86 


THE  STONE  AGE. 


Figs.  132  and  133  represent  different  dolmens  which  still  exist 
in  France. 

Some  dolmens  are  completely  open  to  view,  like  that  represented 
in  Fig.  132,  nothing  impeding  a  perfect  sight  of  them  ;  others,  on 


Fig.  132. — Dolmen  at  Connere  (Marne). 

the  contrary,  are  covered  with  a  hillock  of  earth,  the  dimensions 
of  which  vary  according  to  the  size  of  the  monument  itself. 


Fig.  133. — Vertical  Section  of  the  Dolmen  of  Locmariaker,  in  Brittany.     In  the  Museum  of  Saint- 
Germain. 

This  latter  kind  of  dolmen  more  specially  assumes  the  nature 
of  a  tumulus  ;  a  designation  which  conveys  the  idea  of  some 
mound  raised  above  the  tomb. 

Figs.  134  and  135  represent  the  tumulus-dolmen  existing  at 


EPOCH  OF  TAMED  ANIMALS. 


187 


Gavr'inis  (Oak  Island),  in  Brittany,  or,  more  exactly,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Morbihan.  It  is  the  diminished  sketch  of  an  enormous 
model  exhibited  in  the  Museum  of  Saint-Germain.  This  model 
in  relief  has  a  portion  cut  off  it  which,  by  means  of  a  cord  and 
pulley,  can  be  elevated  or  lowered  at  will,  thus  affording  a  view 
of  the  interior  of  the  dolmen.  It  is  composed  of  a  single  chamber, 
leading  to  which  there  is  a  long  passage. 


Fig.  134.  —  Tumulus-Dolmen  at  Gavr'inis  (Morbihan). 

Were  all  these  dolmens  originally  covered  by  earth  ?  This  is 
a  question  which  still  remains  unsolved.  M.  Alexandre  Bertrand, 
Director  of  the  Archaeological  Museum  of  Saint-Germain,]to  whom 
we  owe  some  very  remarkable  works  on  the  primitive  monuments 


Fig.  135. — A  portion  of  the  Dolmen  at  Gavr'inis. 

of  ancient  Gaul,  decides  it  in  the  affirmative ;  whilst  M.  de  Bon- 
stetten,  a  Swiss  archaeologist  of  great  merit,  is  of  the  contrary 
opinion.  The  matter,  however,  is  of  no  very  great  importance  in 
itself.  It  is,  at  all  events,  an  unquestionable  fact  that  certain  dol- 
mens which  are  now  uncovered  were  once  buried ;  for  they  are 
noticed  to  stand  in  the  centre  of  slightly  raised  mounds  in  which 
the  supports  are  deeply  buried.  As  we  before  stated,  the  action 
of  time  has  destroyed  the  covering  which  the  pre-historic  peoples 


1 88 


THE  STONE  AGE. 


placed  over  their  sepulchres  in  order  to  defend  them  from  the 
injuries  of  time  and  the  profanation  of  man.  Thus,  all  that  we 
now  see  is  the  bare  stones  of  the  sepulchral  chambers — for  so 
long  a  time  supposed  to  be  altars,  and  ascribed  to  the  religious 
worship  of  the  Gauls. 

In  considering,  therefore,  the  dolmens  of  Brittany,  which  have 
been  so  many  times  described  by  antiquarians,  and  made  to  figure 
among  the  number  of  our  historical  monuments,  we  must  renounce 


Fig.  136. — General  Form  of  a  covered  Passage-Tomb. 

the  idea  of  looking  upon  them  as  symbols  of  the  religion  of  our 
ancestors.  They  can  now  only  be  regarded  as  sepulchral  chambers. 


Fig.  137. — Passage-Tomb  at  Bagneux,  near  Saumur. 

Dolmens  are  very  numerous  in  France  ;  much  more  numerous, 
indeed,  than  is  generally  thought.  It  used  to  be  the  common  idea 
that  they  existed  only  in  Brittany,  and  those  curious  in  such 
•^natters  wondered  at  the  supposed  Druidical  altars  which  were  so 
plentifully  distributed  in  this  ancient  province  of  France.  But 
Brittany  is  far  from  possessing  the  exclusive  privilege  of  these 
megalithic  constructions.  They  are  found  in  fifty-eight  of  the 


EPOCH  OF  TAMED  ANIMALS. 


189 


French  departments,  belonging,  for  the  most  part,  to  the  regions 
of  the  south  and  south-west.  The  department  of  Finisterre  con- 
tains 500  of  them ;  Lot,  500;  Morbihan,  250;  Ardeche,  155; 
Aveyron,  125  ;  Dordogne,  100  ;  &c.* 


Fig.  138. — Passage-Tomb  at  Plauharmel  (Morbihan). 

The  authors  who  have  written  on  the  question  we  are  now 
considering,  especially  Sir  J.  Lubbock,  in  his  work  on  "  Pre- 
historic Times,"  and  Nilsson,  the  Swedish  archaeologist,  have 
given  a  much  too  complicated  aspect  to  their  descriptions  of  the 
tomb  of  pre-historic  ages,  owing  to  their  having  multiplied  the 
distinctions  in  this  kind  of  monument.  We  should  only  perplex 


Fig.  139. — Passage-Tomb  ;  the  so-called  Table  de  Cesar,  at  Locmariaker  (Morbihan). 

our  readers  by  following  these  authors  into  all  their  divisions. 
We  must,  however,  give  some  few  details  about  them. 

Sir  J.  Lubbock  gives  the  name  of  passage  grave  to  that  which 
the  northern  archaeologists  call  Ganggraben  (tomb  with  passages) ; 
of  these  we  have  given  four  representations  (Figs.  136,  137,  138, 

*  Alexandre  Bertrand's  "  Les  Monumens  Primitifs  de  la  Gaule." 


190  THE  STONE  AGE. 

1 39),  all  selected  from  specimens  in  France.  This  name  is  applied 
to  a  passage  leading  to  a  more  spacious  chamber,  round  which 
the  bodies  are  ranged.  The  gallery,  formed  of  enormous  slabs 
of  stone  placed  in  succession  one  after  the  other,  almost  always 
points  towards  the  same  point  of  the  compass  ;  in  the  Scandi- 
navian states  it  generally  has  its  opening  facing  the  south  or 
east,  never  the  north. 

The  same  author  gives  the  name  of  chambered  tumuli  (Fig.  140) 
to  tombs  which  are  composed  either  of  a  single  chamber  or  of  a 
collection  of  large  chambers,  the  roofs  and  walls  of  which  are  con- 
structed with  stones  of  immense  size,  which  are  again  covered  up 
by  considerable  masses  of  earth.  This  kind  of  tomb  is  found 
most  frequently  in  the  countries  of  the  north. 

Fig.  140  represents,  according  to  Sir  J.  Lubbock's  work,  a 
Danish  chambered  tumulus. 


Fig.  140. — A  Danish  Titmulus,  or  chambered  Sepulchre. 

Before  bringing  to  a  close  this  description  of  megalithic  monu- 
ments, we  must  say  a  few  words  as  to  menhirs  and  cromlechs. 

Menhirs  (Fig.  141)  are  enormous  blocks  of  rough  stone  which 
were  set  up  in  the  ground  in  the  vicinity  of  tombs.  They  were 
set  up  either  separately,  as  represented  in  Fig.  141,  or  in  rows, 
that  is,  in  a  circle  or  in  an  avenue. 

There  is  in  Brittany  an  extremely  curious  array  of  stones  of 
this  kind  ;  this  is  the  range  of  menhirs  of  Carnac  (Fig.  142). 
The  stones  are  here  distributed  in  eleven  parallel  lines,  over  a 
distance  of  noo  yards,  and,  running  along  the  sea-shore  of 
Brittany,  present  a  very  strange  appearance. 


EPOCH  OF  TAMED  ANIMALS. 


191 


When  menhirs  are  arranged  in  circles,  either  single  or  several 
together,  they  are  called  cromlechs.     They  are  vast   circuits  of 


Fig.  141. — Usual  shape  of  a  Menhir. 

stones,  generally  arranged  round  a  dolmen.     The  respect  which 
was  considered  due  to  the  dead  appears  to  have  converted  these 


Fig.  142. — The  rows  of  Menhirs  at  Carnac. 

enclosures  into  places  of  pilgrimage,  where,  on  certain  days, 
public  assemblies  were  held.     These  enclosures  are  sometimes 


192 


THE  STONE  AGE. 


circular,  as  in  England  ;  sometimes  rectangular,  as  in  Germany ; 
and  embrace  one  or  more  ranks. 

Fig.  143  represents  a  dolmen  with  a  circuit  of  stones  ;  that  is,  a 


Fig.  143. — Dolmen  with  a  Circuit  of  Stones  (CromlecK),  in  the  province  of  Constantine. 

cromlech,  which  has  been  discovered  in  the  province  of  Constan- 
tine.    In  Fig.  144  we  have  a  group  of  Danish  cromlechs. 


Fig.  144. — Group  of  Danish  CromiecJis. 

Among  all  these  various  monuments  the  "passage- tombs"  and 


EPOCH  OF  TAMED  ANIMALS.  193 

the  tumuli  are  the  only  ones  which  will  come  within  the  scope  of 
this  work ;  for  these  only  have  furnished  us  with  any  relics  of 
pre-historic  times,  and  have  given  us  any  information  with 
respect  to  the  peoples  who  occupied  a  great  part  of  Europe  at  a 
date  far  anterior  to  any  traditionary  record. 

These  stone  monuments,  as  we  have  already  stated,  are  neither 
Celtic  nor  Druidical.  The  Celts — a  nation  which  occupied  a  por- 
tion of  Gaul  at  a  period  long  before  the  Christian  era — were 
altogether  innocent  of  any  megalithic  construction.  They  found 
these  monuments  already  in  existence  at  the  time  of  their  immi- 
gration, and,  doubtless,  looked  upon  them  with  as  much  astonish- 
ment as  is  shown  by  observers  of  the  present  day.  Whenever 
there  appeared  any  advantage  in  utilising  them,  the  Celts  did  not 
fail  to  avail  themselves  of  them.  The  priests  of  this  ancient 
people,  the  Druids,  who  plucked  from  off  the  oak  the  sacred 
mistletoe,  performed  their  religious  ceremonies  in  the  depths  of 
some  obscure  forest.  Now,  no  dolmen  was  ever  built  in  the  midst 
of  a  forest ;  all  the  stone  monuments  which  now  exist  stand  in 
comparatively  unwooded  parts  of  the  country.  We  must,  there- 
fore, renounce  the  ancient  and  poetical  idea  which  recognised  in 
these  dolmens  the  sacrificial  altars  of  the  religion  of  our  ancestors. 

Some  tumuli  attain  proportions  which  are  really  colossal. 
Among  these  is  Silbury  Hill,  the  largest  in  Great  Britain,  which 
is  nearly  200  feet  high.  The  enormous  amount  of  labour  which 
would  be  involved  in  constructions  of  this  kind  has  led  to  the 
idea  that  they  were  not  raised  except  in  honour  of  chiefs  and 
other  great  personages. 

On  consulting  those  records  of  history  which  extend  back  to 
the  most  remote  antiquity,  we  arrive  at  the  fact  that  the  custom 
of  raising  colossal  tombs  to  the  illustrious  dead  was  one  that  was 
much  in  vogue  in  the  ancient  Eastern  world.  Traces  of  these 
monuments  are  found  among  the  Hebrews,  the  Assyrians,  the 
Greeks,  the  Egyptians,  &c. 

Thus  Semiramis,  Queen  of  Nineveh,  raised  a  mound  over  the 
tomb  of  Ninus,  her  husband.  Stones  were  likewise  piled  up  over 
the  remains  of  LaTus,  father  of  CEdipus.  In  the  "Iliad,"  Homer 
speaks  of  the  mounds  that  were  raised  to  the  memory  of  Hector 
and  Patroclus.  That  dedicated  to  Patroclus — the  pious  work  of 


I94  THE  STONE  AGE. 

Achilles — was  more  than  100  feet  in  diameter.  Homer  speaks 
of  the  tumuli  existing  in  Greece,  which,  even  in  his  time,  were 
considered  very  ancient,  and  calls  them  the  tombs  of  the  heroes. 
A  tumulus  was  raised  by  Alexander  the  Great  over  the  ashes  of 
his  friend  Hephsestio,  and  so  great  were  the  dimensions  of  this 
monument,  that  it  is  said  to  have  cost  1,200  talents;  that  is,  about 
^£240,000  of  our  money.  In  Roman  history,  too,  we  find  instances 
of  the  same  kind.  Lastly,  the  pyramids  of  Egypt,  those  costly 
and  colossal  funeral  monuments,  are  the  still  visible  representa- 
tions of  the  highest  expression  of  posthumous  homage  which  was 
rendered  by  the  generations  of  antiquity  to  their  most  illustrious 
and  mighty  men. 

This,  however,  could  not  have  been  in  every  case  the  prevailing 
idea  in  the  men  of  the  Stone  Age,  in  causing  the  construction  of 
these  tumuli.  The  large  number  of  bodies  which  have  been  found 


Fig.  145. — Position  of  Skeletons  in  a  Swedish  Tomb  of  the  Stone  Age. 

in  some  of  these  monuments  completely  does  away  with  the  notion 
that  they  were  raised  in  honour  of  a  single  personage,  or  even  of  a 
single  family.  They  were  often  sepulchres  or  burial-places  com- 
mon to  the  use  of  all.  Among  this  class  we  must  rank  the  tumuli 
of  Axevalla  and  of  Luttra,  situated  not  far  from  one  another  in 
Sweden.  The  first,  which  was  opened  in  1805,  contained  twenty 
tombs  of  an  almost  cubical  form,  each  containing  a  skeleton  in  a 
crouching  or  contracted  attitude.  When  the  second  was  opened, 
the  explorers  found  themselves  in  the  presence  of  hundreds  of 
skeletons  placed  in  four  rows  one  upon  another,  all  in  a  contracted 
position  like  those  at  Axevalla ;  along  with  these  human  remains 
various  relics  of  the  Stone  Age  were  also  discovered. 


EPOCH  OF  TAMED  ANIMALS.  195 

Fig.  145  represents  the  position  in  which  the  skeletons  were 
fou  nd. 

M.  Nilsson  has  propounded  the  opinion  that  the  "  passage- 
graves  "  are  nothing  but  former  habitations,  which  had  been  con- 
verted into  tombs  after  the  death  of  those  who  had  previously 
occupied  them.  When  the  master  of  the  house  had  breathed  his 
last — especially  in  the  case  of  some  illustrious  individual — his 
surviving  friends  used  to  place  near  him  various  articles  of  food 
to  provide  for  his  long  journey  ;  and  also  his  weapons  and  other 
objects  which  were  most  precious  to  him  when  in  life  ;  then  the 
dwelling  was  closed  up,  and  was  only  reopened  for  the  purpose 
of  bearing  in  the  remains  of  his  spouse  and  of  his  children. 

Sir  J.  Lubbock  shares  in  this  opinion,  and  brings  forward  facts 
in  its  favour.  He  recites  the  accounts  of  various  travellers,  accord- 
ing to  which,  the  winter-dwellings  of  certain  people  in  the  extreme 
north  bear  a  very  marked  resemblance  to  the  "  passage-tombs  "  of 
the  Stone  Age.  Of  this  kind  are  the  habitations  of  the  Siberians 
and  the  Esquimaux,  which  are  composed  of  an  oval  or  circular 
chamber  placed  a  little  under  the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  com- 
pletely covered  with  earth.  Sir  J.  Lubbock  thinks,  therefore,  that 
in  many  cases  habitations  of  this  kind  may  have  been  taken  for 
tumuli — a  mistake,  he  adds,  all  the  more  likely  to  be  made 
because  some  of  these  mounds,  although  containing  ashes,  re- 
mains of  pottery,  and  various  implements,  have  not  furnished 
any  relics  of  human  bones. 

In  his  work  on  the  "  Sepultures  de  1'Age  de  la  Pierre  chez  les 
Parisii,"  M.  Leguay,  a  learned  architect  and  member  of  the  Arch- 
aeological Society,  has  called  attention  to  the  fact  that  the  con- 
struction of  these  dolmens  betrays,  as  existing  in  the  men  of  this 
epoch,  a  somewhat  advanced  degree  of  knowledge  of  the  elements 
of  architecture  : — 

"  The  interment  of  the  dead,"  says  M.  Leguay,  "  took  place, 
during  the  polished-stone  epoch,  in  vaults,  or  a  kind  of  tomb  con- 
structed on  the  spot,  of  stones  of  various  thicknesses,  generally 
flat  in  shape,  and  not  elevated  to  any  very  great  height,  being 
laid  without  any  kind  of  cement  or  mortar.  These  vaults,  which 
were  at  first  undivided,  were  subsequently  separated  into  com- 
partments by  stones  of  a  similar  character,  in  which  compartments 
bodies  were  placed  in  various  positions.  They  were  covered  with 


196  THE  STONE  AGE. 

earth  or  with  flat  stones,  and  sometimes  we  meet  with  a  circular 
eminence  raised  over  them,  formed  of  a  considerable  heap  of  stones 
which  had  been  subsequently  brought  thither  ;  this  fact  was  veri- 
fied by  M.  Brouillet  in  1862  at  the  Tombelle  de  Brioux  (Vienne). 

"  This  kind  of  interment  bears  evidence  of  some  real  progress. 
Polished  flint  instruments  are  met  with  intermingled  with  worked 
stones  which  have  been  brought  from  a  distance.  Pottery  of  a 
very  significant  character  approaches  that  of  the  epoch  at  which 
ornamentation  commenced  ;  and  the  Tombelle  de  Brioux\\d,<$  fur- 
nished two  vessels  with  projecting  and  perforated  handles  formed 
in  the  clay  itself.  I  met  with  specimens  similar  to  these  both  in 
shape  and  workmanship  in  the  cremation-tombs  at  Villeneuve- 
Saint-Georges,  which,  as  I  have  previously  stated,  appeared  to  me 
to  be  later  in  date  than  the  simple  interment  situated  below  them. 

"  The  first  element  in  the  art  of  construction,  that  is,  stability, 
is  manifested  in  these  latter  monuments.  They  do  not  come  up 
to  the  fine  dolmens,  or  to  the  monuments  which  followed  them, 
but  the  principle  on  which  stones  should  be  laid  together  is  already 
arrived  at.  The  slab  forming  the  covering  is  the  first  attempt  at 
the  lintel,  the  primitive  base  of  architectural  science.  By  in- 
sensible degrees  the  dimensions  of  the  monument  increased,  the 
nature  of  the  materials  were  modified,  and,  from  the  small  ele- 
mentary monument  to  the  grand  sepulchral  dolmen,  but  one  step 
remained  to  be  made — a  giant  step,  certainly,  but  not  beyond  the 
reach  of  human  intelligence. 

"  This  step,  however,  was  not  accomplished  suddenly  and  with- 
out transitional  stages.  We  find  a  proof  of  this  in  the  beautiful 
ossuary  discovered  in  1863,  at  Chamant,  near  Senlis  (Oise),  on  the 
property  of  the  Comte  de  Lavaulx.  This  monument  does  not  yet 
come  up  to  the  most  beautiful  of  the  class  ;  but  it  possesses  all 
the  inspirations  which  suggested  the  form  of  its  successors,  of 
which,  indeed,  it  is  the  type. 

"  Almost  flat  slabs  of  stone,  of  a  greater  height  than  those  form- 
ing the  vaults,  and  of  rather  considerable  dimensions,  are  placed 
on  edge  so  as  to  form  a  square  chamber.  A  partition,  formed  of 
stones  of  a  similar  character,  leaving  a  space  or  passage  between 
them,  separates  the  chamber  into  two  unequal  portions.  Some 
arrangement  of  this  kind  has  been  observed  in  most  of  the  finest 
dolmens ;  it  is  found  at  a  spot  not  far  from  Chamant,  in  a  covered 


EPOCH  OF  TAMED  ANIMALS.  197 

way  known  under  the  name  of  the  Pierres  Turquoises,  in  the 
forest  of  Carnelle,  near  Beaumont-sur-Oise  (Seine-et-Oise). 

"  At  Chamant,  however,  the  chamber  was  not  more  than  3  to 
4  feet  in  height  under  the  roof,  which  was  formed  of  large  flat 
stones,  and  was  large  enough  to  allow  of  a  considerable  number  of 
bodies  to  be  deposited  within  it,  either  in  a  recumbent  or  con- 
tracted position.  Near  them  there  were  placed  delicately- 
wrought  flints,  and  also  some  fine-polished  hatchets,  one  of 
which  was  of  serpentine  ;  another  of  large  dimensions,  sculptured 
after  the  fashion  of  the  diluvial  hatchets,  appeared  to  me  to  have 
been  prepared  for  polishing. 

''"The  researches  which  have  been  made  have  brought  to  light 
but  slight  traces  of  pottery,  and  the  small  fragments  that  I  have 
examined  do  not  point  out  any  very  remote  age  for  this  monu- 
ment. Nevertheless,  the  investigation  of  this  sepulchre,  in  which 
I  was  guided  by  a  somewhat  different  idea  from  that  of  merely 
studying  the  monument  itself,  was  not  carried  out  with  the  exact 
care  that  would  be  necessary  for  collecting  all  the  indications 
which  it  might  have  furnished. 

"  Between  the  sepulchre  of  Chamant  and  the  finest  dolmens,  the 
distinction  is  nothing  more  than  a  question  of  dimensions  rather 
than  any  chronological  point.  The  latter  are  formed  of  colossal 
stones,  and  when  one  examines  them  and  seeks  to  realise  the  pro- 
cess which  must  have  been  employed  for  raising  them,  the  mind  is 
utterly  perplexed,  and  the  imagination  finds  a  difficulty  in  con- 
ceiving how  it  was  possible  to  move  these  immense  masses,  and 
especially,  to  place  them  in  the  position  they  now  occupy;  for  at  the 
present  day,  in  order  to  arrive  at  similar  results,  it  would  be  neces- 
sary to  employ  all  the  means  which  science  has  at  command."* 

The  megalithic  constructions  do  not  all  date  back  to  the  same 
epoch.  Some  were  raised  during  the  Stone  Age,  others  during 
the  Bronze  Age.  There  is  nothing  in  their  mode  of  architecture 
which  will  enable  us  to  recognise  their  degree  of  antiquity  ;  but 
the  relics  which  they  contain  afford  us  complete  information  in 
this  respect  Thus,  in  France,  according  to  M.  Alexandre  Ber- 
trand,  the  dolmens  and  the  tumuli-dolmens  contain,  in  a  general 
way,  nothing  but  stone  and  bone  articles  ;  those  of  bronze  and 
.gold  are  very  rare,  and  iron  is  never  met  with.  In  the  true 

"Des  Sepultures  a  1'Age  de  la  Pierre,"  pp.  15,  16.      1865. 


198  THE  STONE  AGE. 

tumuli,  on  the  contrary,  bronze  objects  predominate,  and  iron  is 
very  abundant ;  this  is  an  evident  proof  that  these  monuments 
are  of  less  ancient  origin  than  the  dolmens.  In  the  same  way  we 
ascertain  that  the  Danish  dolmens  and  the  great  sepulchral  cham- 
bers of  Scandinavia,  all  belong  to  the  polished-stone  epoch. 
When,  therefore,  we  class  the  dolmens  in  this  last-named  epoch  of 
man's  history,  we  are  deciding  in  full  harmony  with  the  great 
body  of  data  which  bear  upon  the  point. 

In  order  to  fix  the  period  with  still  greater  accuracy,  we  might 
add  that  the  dolmens  belong  to  the  latter  portion  of  the  polished- 
stone  epoch  and  the  commencement  of  the  Bronze  Age.  But,  as 
we  before  said,  we  do  not  attach  any  importance  to  these  distinc- 
tions, which  would  only  uselessly  embarrass  the  mind  of  the  reader. 

An  examination  of  the  Danish  dolmens  has  led  the  author  of 
the  "  Catalogue  of  Pre-historic  Objects  sent  by  Denmark  to  the 
Universal  Exposition  of  1867,"  to  sum  up  in  the  following  words 
the  details  concerning  these  sepulchral  monuments  : — 

"  As  regards  the  Danish  dolmens,  the  number  of  skeletons  con- 
tained in  them  varies  much  ;  in  the  largest  there  are  as  many  as 
twenty,  and  in  the  smallest  there  are  not  more  than  five  or  six  ; 
sometimes  they  are  placed  in  stages,  one  above  the  other. 

"  The  bones  are  never  found  in  natural  order ;  the  head  lies 
close  to  the  knees,  and  no  limb  is  in  its  natural  place.  It  follows 
from  this,  that  in  the  course  of  interment  the  body  was  contracted 
into  a  crouching  position. 

"  The  bottom  of  the  sepulchral  chamber  of  a  dolmen  is  generally 
covered  with  a  layer  of  flints  which  have  been  subjected  to  fire  ;. 
this  is  the  floor  on  which  the  body  was  deposited  ;  it  was  then 
covered  with  a  thin  coating  of  earth,  and  the  tomb  was  closed. 
Yet,  as  we  have  just  observed,  it  was  but  very  rarely  that  dolmens 
contained  only  one  skeleton.  They  must,  therefore,  have  been 
opened  afresh  in  order  to  deposit  other  bodies.  It  must  have  been 
on  these  occasions,  in  order  to  contend  with  the  miasma  of  putre- 
faction, that  they  lighted  the  fires,  of  which  numerous  and  evident 
traces  are  seen  inside  the  dolmens.  This  course  of  action  con- 
tinued, as  it  appears,  until  the  time  when  the  dolmen  was  entirely 
filled  up :  but  even  then  the  tomb  does  not,  in  every  case,  seem 
to  have  been  abandoned.  Sometimes  the  most  ancient  skeletons 
have  been  displaced  to  make  room  for  fresh  bodies.  This  had 


EPOCH  OF  TAMED  ANIMALS.  199 

taken  place  in  a  dolmen  near  Copenhagen,  which  was  opened 
and  searched  in  the  presence  of  the  late  King  Frederick  VII. 

"  A  dolmen  situated  near  the  village  of  Hammer,  opened  a  few 
years  ago  by  M.  Boye,  presented  some  very  curious  peculiarities. 
In  addition  to  flint  instruments,  human  bones  were  discovered 
which  had  also  been  subjected  to  the  action  of  fire.  We  are 
therefore,  led  to  suppose  that  a  funeral  banquet  had  taken  place 
in  the  vicinity  of  the  tomb,  and  that  some  joints  of  human  flesh 
had  formed  an  addition  to  the  roasted  stag.  This  is,  however, 
the  only  discovery  of  the  kind  which  has  been  made  up  to  the 
present  time,  and  we  should  by  no  means  be  justified  in  drawing 
the  inference  that  the  inhabitants  of  Denmark  at  this  epoch  were 
addicted  to  cannibalism. 

"  The  dead  bodies  were  deposited  along  with  their  weapons 
and  implements,  and  also  with  certain  vessels  which  must  have 
contained  the  food  which  perhaps  some  religious  usage  induced 
them  to  leave  close  to  the  body.  For  a  long  time  it  was  supposed 
that  it  was  the  custom  to  place  these  weapons  by  the  side  of  men 
only.  But  in  a  dolmen  at  Gieruen,  a  hatchet  was  found  near  a 
skeleton  which  was  evidently  that  of  a  woman. 

"  We  now  give  the  inventory  of  a  '  find '  made  in  a  Danish 
dolmen,  that  of  Hielm,  in  the  Isle  of  Moen,  which  was  opened  in 
1853.  The  sepulchral  chamber  was  1 6^  feet  in  length,  I  \y2  feet 
in  width,  and  4^  feet  in  height. 

"  In  it  were  discovered  twenty-two  spear-heads,  the  largest  of 
which -was  1 1  inches  in  length,  and  the  smallest  5J^  inches  ;  more 
than  forty  flint  flakes  or  knives  from  2  to  5  inches  in  length  ; 
three  flat  hatchets,  and  one  rather  thicker  ;  three  carpenter's 
chisels,  the  longest  of  which  measured  8  inches ;  a  finely-made 
hammer  5  inches  long ;  three  flint  nuclei  exactly  similar  to  those 
found  in  the  kitchen-middens  ;  and  lastly,  in  addition  to  all  these 
flint  articles,  some  amber  beads  and  forty  earthen  vessels  moulded 
by  the  hand."  * 

What  were  the  funeral  customs  in  use  among  men  during  the 
polished-stone  epoch  ?  and  what  were  the  ceremonies  which  took 
place  at  that  period  when  they  buried  their  dead  ?  These  are 
questions  which  it  will  not  be  difficult  to  answer  after  a  due 
investigation  of  the  dolmens  and  tttmidi. 

*  "  Le  Danemark  a  1'Exposition  Universelle  de  1867."     Paris,  1868. 


200  THE  STONE  AGE. 

In  a  great  number  of  tumuli,  animal  bones  have  been  found 
either  broken  or  notched  by  sharp  instruments.  This  is  an  indi- 
cation that  the  funeral  rites  were  accompanied  by  feasts  just  as 
in  the  preceding  epochs. 

The  body  which  was  about  to  be  enclosed  in  the  tumulus  was 
borne  upon  boughs  of  trees,  as  is  the  case  among  some  savage 
tribes  of  the  present  day.  The  men  and  women  attending  wore 
their  best  attire  ;  necklaces  of  amber  and  shells  adorned  their 
necks.  Men  carrying  torches  walked  in  front  of  the  procession, 
in  order  to  guide  the  bearers  into  the  dark  recesses  of  the  sepul- 
chral chambers. 

From  these  data  Fig.  146  has  been  designed,  which  gives  a  repre- 
sentation of  a  funeral  ceremony  during  the  polished-stone  epoch. 

If  we  may  judge  by  the  calcined  human  bones  which  are  rather 
frequently  met  with  in  tombs,  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  some- 
times victims  were  sacrificed  over  the  body  of  the  defunct,  per- 
haps slaves,  perhaps  even  his  widow — the  custom  of  sacrificing 
the  widow  still  being  in  practice  in  certain  parts  of  India. 

Sir  J.  Lubbock  is,  besides,  of  opinion  that  when  a  woman  died 
in  giving  birth  to  a  child,  or  even  whilst  she  was  still  suckling  it, 
the  child  was  interred  alive  with  her.  This  hypothesis  appears 
a  natural  one,  when  we  take  into  account  the  great  number  of 
cases  in  which  the  skeletons  of  a  woman  and  child  have  been 
found  together. 

M.  Leguay,  in  his  "  Memoire  sur  les  Sepultures  des  Parisii," 
which  we  quoted  above,  expresses  the  opinion  that  after  each 
interment,  in  addition  to  the  funeral  banquet,  a  fire  was  lighted 
on  the  mound  above  the  tumulus,  and  that  each  attendant  threw 
certain  precious  objects  into  the  flames. 

The  objects  which  were  most  precious  during  the  polished-stone 
epoch  were  flints  wrought  into  hatchets,  poniards,  or  knives. 

"  On  to  this  burning  hearth,"  says  M.  Leguay,  "  as  numerous 
instances  prove,  those  who  were  present  were  in  the  habit  of  casting 
stones,  or  more  generally  wrought  flints,  utensils  and  instruments, 
all  made  either  of  some  kind  of  stone  or  of  bone  ;  also  fragments  of 
pottery,  and,  doubtless,  other  objects  which  the  fire  has  destroyed. 

"  There  are  many  of  these  objects  which  have  not  suffered  any 
injury  from  the  fire  ;  some  of  the  flints,  indeed,  seem  so  freshly 
cut  and  are  so  little  altered  by  the  lapse  of  time,  that  it  might  be 


EPOCH  OF  TAMED  ANIMALS.  201 

readily  imagined  that  they  had  been  but  recently  wrought  ;  these 
were  not  placed  in  the  sepulchre,  but  are  met  with  intermingled 
with  the  earth  which  covers  or  surrounds  the  hearth,  and  appear 
in  many  cases  to  have  been  cast  in  after  the  extinction  of  the  fire 
as  the  earth  was  being  filled  in. 

"Sometimes,  indeed,  when  the  archaeologist  devotes  especial  care 
to  his  digging,  he  comes  across  a  kind  of  layer  of  wrought  flints 
which  are,  in  fact,  to  be  looked  upon  as  refuse  rather  than  wrought 
articles.  Their  position  appears  to  indicate  the  surface  of  the 
soil  during  that  epoch,  a  surface  which  has  been  covered  up  by  the 
successive  deposits  of  subsequent  ages  ;  and  although  some  of 
these  flakes  may  have  been  due  to  some  of  the  objects  which  had 
been  placed  in  the  sepulchre  having  been  chipped  on  the  spot,  there 
are  many  others  which  have  not  originated  in  this  way,  and  have 
come  from  objects  which  have  been  deposited  in  other  places. 

"  All  these  stones,  which  are  common  to  three  kinds  of  burial- 
places,  have  fulfilled,  in  my  opinion,  a  votive  function  ;  that  is  to 
say,  that  they  represent,  as  regards  this  epoch,  the  wreaths  and 
coronals  of  immortelles  or  the  other  objects  which  we  in  the  present 
day  place  upon  the  tombs  of  our  relations  or  friends,  thus  follow- 
ing out  a  custom  the  origin  of  which  is  lost  in  the  night  of  time. 

"  And  let  not  the  reader  treat  with  ridicule  these  ideas,  which  I 
hold  to  be  not  far  from  the  truth.  Men,  as  individuals,  may  pass 
away  and  generations  may  disappear;  but  they  always  hand  down 
to  their  progeny  and  those  that  succeed  them  the  customs  of  their 
epoch,  which  customs  will  undergo  little  or  no  change  until  the 
causes  which  have  produced  them  also  disappear.  Thus  it  is  with 
all  that  concerns  the  ceremonies  observed  in  bearing  man  to  his  last 
resting-place — a  duty  which  can  never  change,  and  always  brings 
with  it  its  train  of  sorrow  and  regret.  Nowadays,  a  small  sum  of 
money  is  sufficient  to  give  outward  expression  to  our  grief;  but  at 
these  remote  epochs  each  individual  fashioned  his  own  offering, 
chipped  his  own  flint,  and  bore  it  himself  to  the  grave  of  his  friend. 

''  This  idea  will  explain  the  diversity  of  shape  in  the  flints 
placed  round  and  in  the  sepulchres,  and  especially  the  uncouth- 
ness  of  many  of  the  articles  which,  although  all  manufactured  of 
the  same  material,  betray  a  style  of  workmanship  exercised  by 
numerous  hands  more  or  less  practised  in  the  work. 

"  It  may,  however,  be  readily  conceived  that  during  an  epoch 


202  THE  STONE  AGE. 

when  stones  were  the  chief  material  for  all  useful  implements, 
every  wrought  flint  represented  a  certain  value.  To  deprive  them- 
selves of  these  objects  of  value  in  order  t<3  offer  them  to  the  manes 
of  the  dead  was  considered  a  laudable  action,  just  as  was  the  case 
subsequently  as  regards  still  more  precious  objects  ;  and  this  cus- 
tom, which  was  observed  during  many  long  ages,  although  some- 
times, and  perhaps  often  practised  with  the  declining  energy  in- 
herent in  every  religious  custom,  was  the  origin  of  a  practice 
adopted  by  many  of  the  nations  of  antiquity — that,  namely,  of 
casting  a  stone  upon  the  tomb  of  the  dead.  Thus  were  formed 
those  sepulchral  heaps  of  stones  called  gal-gals,  some  of  which  still 
exist. 

"  It  is,  without  doubt,  to  this  votive  idea  that  we  must  attribute 
the  fact  that  so  many  beautiful  objects  which  ornament  our 
museums  have  been  found  deposited  in  these  sepulchres  ;  but  we 
must  remark  that  the  large  and  roughly-hewn  hatchets,  and  also 
the  knives  of  the  second  epoch,  are  replaced,  in  the  third  epoch, 
by  polished  hatchets  often  even  fitted  with  handles,  and  also  by 
knives  of  much  larger  size  and  finer  workmanship. 

"  As  an  additional  corroboration  of  my  ideas,  I  will  mention  a 
curious  fact  which  I  ascertained  to  exist  in  two  sepulchres  of  this 
kind  which  I  searched  ;  the  significance  of  this  fact  can  only  be 
explained  by  a  hypothesis  which  any  one  may  readily  develop. 

"  Each  of  them  contained  one  long  polished  hatchet,  broken  in 
two  in  the  middle,  the  other  portion  of  which  was  not  found  in 
the  sepulchre. 

"  One  is  now  in  the  Museum  at  Cluny,  where  I  deposited  it ; 
the  other  is  still  in  my  own  possession.  It  is  beyond  all  dispute 
that  they  were  thus  broken  at  the  time  of  the  interment. 

"  Numerous  hatchets  broken  in  a  similar  way  have  been  found 
by  M.  A.  Forgeais  in  the  bed  of  the  Seine  at  Paris,  and  also  in 
various  other  spots  ;  all  of  them  were  broken  in  the  middle,  and 
I  have  always  been  of  opinion  that  they  proceeded  from  sepul- 
chres of  a  like  kind,  which,  having  been  placed  on  the  edge  of 
the  river,  had  been  washed  away  by  the  flow  of  water  which, 
during  long  ages,  had  eaten  away  the  banks." 

At  a  subsequent  period,  that  is,  during  the  bronze  epoch,  dead 
bodies  were  often,  as  we  shall  see,  reduced  to  ashes  either  wholly 
or  in  part,  and  the  ashes  were  enclosed  in  urns. 


THE   AGE    OF   METALS. 

I 

I. 

THE  BRONZE  EPOCH. 


THE   BRONZE  EPOCH.  205. 


CHAPTER  I. 

The  Discovery  of  Metals — Various  Reasons  suggested  for  explaining  the  Origin  of 
Bronze  in  the  West — The  Invention  of  Bronze — A  Foundry  during  the  Bronze 
Epoch — Permanent  and  Itinerant  Foundries  existing  during  the  Bronze  Epoch 
— Did  the  knowledge  of  Metals  take  its  rise  in  Europe  owing  to  the  Progress  of 
Civilisation,  or  was  it  a  Foreign  Importation  ? 

THE  acquisition  and  employment  of  metals  is  one  of  the  greatest 
facts  in  our  social  history.  Thenard,  the  chemist,  has  asserted 
that  we  may  judge  of  the  state  of  civilisation  of  any  nation  by  the 
degree  of  perfection  at  which  it  has  arrived  in  the  workmanship 
of  iron.  Looking  at  the  matter  in  a  more  general  point  of  view,  we 
may  safely  say  that  if  man  had  never  become  acquainted  with 
metals  he  would  have  remained  for  ever  in  his  originally  savage 
state. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  free  use  of,  or  privation  from, 
metals  is  a  question  of  life  and  death  for  any  nation.  When  we 
take  into  account  the  important  part  that  is  played  by  metals  in 
all  modern  communities,  we  cannot  fail  to  be  convinced  that, 
without  metals,  civilisation  would  have  been  impossible.  That 
astonishing  scientific  and  industrial  movement  which  this  nine- 
teenth century  presents  to  us  in  its  most  remarkable  form — the 
material  comfort  which  existing  generations  are  enjoying — all 
our  mechanical  appliances,  manufactures  of  such  diverse  kinds, 
books  and  arts — not  one  of  all  these  benefits  for  man,  in  the 
absence  of  metals,  could  ever  have  come  into  existence.  With- 
out the  help  of  metal,  man  would  have  been  condemned  to  live 
in  great  discomfort  ;  but,  aided  by  this  irresistible  lever,  his. 
powers  have  been  increased  a  hundredfold,  and  man's  empire 
has  been  gradually  extended  over  the  whole  of  nature. 

In  all  probability,  gold,  among  all  the  metals,  is  the  first  with 
which  man  became  acquainted.  Gold,  in  a  metallic  state,  is  drifted 
down  by  the  waters  of  many  a  river,  and  its  glittering  brightness 


206  THE  AGE  OF  METALS. 

would  naturally  point  it  out  to  primitive  peoples.  Savages  are 
like  children,  they  love  everything  that  shines  brightly.  Gold, 
therefore,  must,  in  very  early  days,  have  found  its  way  into  the 
possession  of  the  primitive  inhabitants  of  our  globe. 

Gold  is  still  often  met  with  in  the  Ural  mountains  ;  and  thence, 
perhaps,  it  originally  spread  all  over  the  north  of  Europe.  The 
streams  and  the  rivers  of  some  of  the  central  countries  of  Europe, 
such  as  Switzerland,  France,  and  Germany,  might  also  have  fur- 
nished a  small  quantity. 

After  gold,  copper  must  have  been  the  next  metal  which 
attracted  the  attention  of  men  ;  in  the  first  place,  because  this 
metal  is  sometimes  found  in  a  native  state,  and  also  because 
cupriferous  ores,  and  especially  copper  pyrites,  are  very  widely 
distributed.  Nevertheless,  the  extraction  of  copper  from  the 
ores  is  an  operation  of  such  a  delicate  character,  that  it  must  have 
been  beyond  the  reach  of  the  metallurgic  appliances  at  the  dis- 
posal of  men  during  the  early  pre-historic  period. 

The  knowledge  of  tin  also  dates  back  to  a  very  high  antiquity. 
Still,  although  men  might  become  acquainted  with  tin  ores,  a 
long  interval  must  have  elapsed  before  they  could  have  succeeded 
in  extracting  the  pure  metal. 

Silver  did  not  become  known  to  men  until  a  much  later  date  ; 
for  this  metal  is  very  seldom  met  with  in  the  tumuli  of  the 
bronze  epoch.  The  fact  is,  that  silver  is  seldom  found  in  a  pure 
state,  and  scarcely  ever  except  in  combination  with  lead  ores  ; 
lead,  however,  was  not  known  until  after  iron. 

Bronze,  as  every  one  knows,  is  an  alloy  of  copper  and  tin  (nine 
parts  of  copper  and  one  of  tin).  Now  it  is  precisely  this  alloy, 
namely  bronze,  which  was  the  first  metallic  substance  used  in 
Europe ;  indeed,  the  sole  substance  used,  to  the  exclusion  of 
copper.  We  have,  therefore,  to  explain  the  somewhat  singular 
circumstance  that  an  alloy,  and  not  a  pure  metal,  was  the  metallic 
substance  that  was  earliest  used  in  Europe  ;  and  we  must  also 
inquire  how  it  was  that  bronze  could  have  been  composed  by  the 
nations  which  succeeded  those  of  the  polished-stone  epoch. 

At  first  sight  it  might  appear  strange  that  an  alloy  like  bronze 
should  have  been  the  first  metallic  substance  used  by  man,  thus 
setting  aside  iron,  deposits  of  which  are  very  plentiful  in  Europe. 


THE  BRONZE  EPOCH.  207 

But  it  is  to  be  remarked,  in  the  first  place,  that  iron  ores  do  not 
attract  the  attention  so  much  as  those  of  tin  and  copper.  Added 
to  this  the  extraction  of  iron  from  its  ores  is  one  of  the  most  difficult 
operations  of  the  kind.  When  dealing  with  ferruginous  ores,  the 
first  operation  produces  nothing  more  than  rough  cast  iron — a  very 
impure  substance,  which  is  so  short  and  brittle  that  it  possesses 
scarcely  any  metallic  qualities,  and  differs  but  little  from  stone  as 
regards  any  use  it  could  be  applied  to.  It  requires  re-heating  and 
hammering  to  bring  it  into  the  condition  of  malleable  iron.  On 
the  other  hand,  by  simply  smelting  together  copper  and  tin  ores, 
and  adding  a  little  charcoal,  bronze  might  be  at  once  produced, 
without  any  necessity  for  previously  extracting  and  obtaining 
pure  copper  and  tin  in  a  separate  state.  This  will  explain  how 
it  came  to  pass  that  the  earliest  metal-workers  produced  bronze 
at  one  operation,  without  even  being  acquainted  with  the  separate 
metals  which  enter  into  its  composition. 

We  are  left  entirely  to  hypothesis  in  endeavouring  to  realise  to 
ourselves  how  men  were  led  to  mix  together  copper  and  tin  ores, 
and  thus  to  produce  bronze — a  hard,  durable,  and  fusible  alloy, 
and  consequently  well  adapted,  without  much  trouble,  for  the 
fabrication,  by  melting  in  moulds,  of  hatchets,  poniards,  and 
swords,  as  well  as  agricultural  and  mechanical  instruments. 

Bronze  was  endowed  with  all  the  most  admirable  qualities  for 
aiding  the  nascent  industrial  skill  of  mankind.  It  is  more  fusible 
than  copper,  and  is  also  harder  than  this  metal ;  indeed,  in  the 
latter  respect,  it  may  compete  with  iron.  It  is  a  curious  fact  that 
bronze  has  the  peculiarity  of  hardening  when  cooled  gradually. 
If  it  is  made  red-hot  in  the  fire,  and  is  then  suddenly  cooled  by 
plunging  it  into  water,  the  metal  becomes  more  ductile,  and  may 
be  easily  hammered  ;  but  it  regains  its  original  hardness  if  it  is 
again  heated  red-hot  and  then  allowed  to  cool  slowly.  This,  as 
we  see,  is  just  the  contrary  to  the  properties  of  steel. 

By  taking  advantage  of  this  quality  of  bronze  they  were  enabled 
to  hammer  it,  and,  after  the  necessary  work  with  the  hammer  was 
finished,  they  could,  by  means  of  gradual  cooling,  restore  the 
metal  to  its  original  hardness.  At  the  present  day,  cymbals  and 
tomtoms  are  made  exactly  in  this  way. 

All  these  considerations  will  perhaps  sufficiently  explain  to  the 


208  THE  AGE   OF  METALS. 

reader  why  the  use  of  bronze  preceded  that  of  iron  among  all  the 
European  and  Asiatic  peoples. 

On  this  quasi-absence  of  manufactured  copper  in  the  pre-historic 
monuments  of  Europe,  certain  archaeologists  have  relied  when 
propounding  the  opinion  that  bronze  was  brought  into  Europe 
by  a  people  coming  from  the  East,  a  more  advanced  and  civilised 
people,  who  had  already  passed  through'  their  copper  age,  that  is, 
had  known  and  made  use  of  pure  copper.  This  people,  it  is  said, 
violently  invaded  Europe,  and  in  almost  every  district  took  the 
place  of  the  primitive  population  ;  so  that,  in  every  country, 
bronze  suddenly  succeeded  stone  for  the  manufacture  of  instru- 
ments, weapons,  and  implements. 

By  the  side  of  these  savants,  who  represent,  to  some  extent,  in 
ethnological  questions,  the  partisans  of  the  great  geological  cata- 
clysms or  revolutions  of  the  globe,  there  are  others  who  would 
refer  the  appearance  of  bronze  in  Europe  to  a  great  extension  of 
commercial  relations.  They  utterly  reject  the  idea  of  any  con- 
quest, of  any  great  invasion  having  brought  with  it  a  complete 
change  in  manners,  customs,  and  processes  of  industrial  skill.  In 
their  opinion,  it  was  commerce  which  first  brought  bronze  from 
the  East  and  introduced  it  to  the  men  of  the  West.  This  is  the 
view  of  Sir  Cornewall  Lewis,  the  archaeologist  and  statesman, 
and  also  of  Prof.  Nilsson,  who  attributes  to  the  Phoenicians  the 
importation  of  bronze  into  Europe. 

Without  attaining  any  great  result,  Nilsson  has  taken  much 
trouble  in  supporting  this  idea  by  acceptable  proofs.  We  are 
called  upon  to  agree  with  the  Danish  archaeologist  in  admitting 
that  the  Phoenicians,  that  is,  the  inhabitants  of  Tyre  and  Sidon, 
went  with  their  ships  to  procure  tin  from  Great  Britain,  in  order 
to  make  an  alloy  with  it  in  their  own  country,  which  alloy  they 
subsequently  imported  into  Europe. 

This  is  nothing  but  historic  fancy.  To  this  romance  of  archaeo- 
logy we  shall  oppose  the  simple  explanation  which  chemistry 
suggests  to  us.  Our  belief  is  that  the  bronze  was  fabricated  on 
the  spot  by  the  very  people  who  made  use  of  it.  All  that  was 
requisite  in  order  to  obtain  bronze,  was  to  mix  and  smelt  together 
the  ores  of  oxidised  copper  or  copper  pyrites,  and  tin  ore,  adding 
a  small  quantity  of  charcoal.  Now,  copper  ore  abounds  in 
Europe ;  that  of  tin  is  certainly  rare ;  and  it  is  this  rarity  of  tin 


\ 


THE  BRONZE  EPOCH.  209 

ore  which  is  appealed  to  in  support  of  the  conjecture  against 
which  we  are  contending.  But,  although  tin  ores  are  nowadays 
rare  in  Europe,  except  in  England  and  Saxony,  they  are,  never- 
theless, to  be  met  with  in  the  centre  and  south  of  the  Continent ; 
and,  doubtless,  in  the  early  ages  of  mankind  the  quantities  were 
quite  sufficient  to  supply  the  slender  requirements  of  the  dawning 
efforts  of  industrial  skill.  We  may,  perhaps,  be  permitted  to 
allege  that  the  cause  of  the  supplies  of  tin  ores  being  so  poor  in 
the  centre  and  south  of  Europe,  may  be  the  fact  that  they  were 
exhausted  by  the  workings  of  our  ancestors.  Thus,  at  least, 
many  of  the  deposits  of  copper,  silver,  and  lead  have  been 
exhausted  by  the  Romans,  and  we  now  find  nothing  more  than 
the  mere  remains  of  mines  which  were  once  very  productive. 

We  may  easily  see  that,  in  order  to  account  for  the  presence 
of  bronze  in  Europe  during  the  primitive  epochs  of  mankind,  it 
was  not  necessary  to  build  up  such  a  framework  of  hypothesis  as 
Prof.  Nilsson  has  so  elaborately  raised. 

To  sum  up  the  whole  matter,  we  may  say  that  the  use  of  bronze 
preceded  that  of  iron  in  the  primitive  industry  of  Europe  and 
Asia ;  and  that  the  people  of  our  hemisphere  were  acquainted 
with  bronze  before  they  came  to  the  knowledge  of  pure  copper 
and  tin  ;  this  is  all  that  we  can  safely  assert  on  the  point. 

It  might  of  course  have  been  the  case  that  copper  and  tin  were 
first  used  alone,  and  that  the  idea  was  subsequently  entertained 
of  combining  the  two  metals,  so  as  to  improve  both.  But  the 
facts  evidently  show  that,  so  far  as  regards  Europe,  things  did 
not  take  place  in  this  way,  and  that  bronze  was  employed  in  the 
works  of  primitive  industry  before  copper  and  tin  were  known  as 
existing  in  a  separate  state.* 

We  must,  however,  state  that  in  the  New  World  the  matter 
was  different.  The  Indians  of  North  America,  long  before  they 
knew  anything  about  bronze,  were  in  the  habit  of  hammering 
the  copper  which  was  procured  from  the  mines  of  Lake  Superior, 
and  of  making  of  it  weapons,  ornaments,  and  implements. 

*  It  must,  however,  be  observed  that  the  author's  theory  does  not  agree  with  the 
opinion  of  metallurgists,  who  do  not  consider  the  reduction  of  mixed  copper  and  tin 
ore  a  practically  effective  process,  and  would  favour  the  more  usual  view  that  the 
metals  were  smelted  separately,  and  afterwards  fused  together  to  form  bronze. — {Note 
to  Eng.  Trans.) 

P 


210  THE  AGE  OF  METALS. 

After  considering  these  general  and  theoretical  points,  we  shall 
now  pass  on  to  the  history  of  the  employment  of  bronze  among 
men  of  pre-historic  ages,  and  shall  endeavour  to  give  some 
description  of  their  works  for  the  manufacture  of  metals. 

Facts  handed  down  by  tradition  evidently  show  that,  among 
the  peoples  both  of  Europe  and  Asia,  the  use  of  bronze  preceded 
that  of  iron. 

Homer  tells  us  that  the  soldiers  of  the  Greek  and  Trojan  armies 
were  provided  with  iron  weapons,  yet  he  reserves  for  the  heroes 
weapons  made  of  bronze.  It  seems  that  bronze  being  the  most 
ancient,  was  therefore  looked  upon  as  the  more  noble  metal ; 
hence,  its  use  is  reserved  for  chiefs  or  great  warriors.  Among  all 
nations,  that  which  is  the  most  ancient  is  ever  the  most  honour- 
able and  the  most  sacred.  Thus,  to  mention  one  instance  only, 
the  Jews  of  our  own  times  still  perform  the  ceremony  of  circum- 
cision with  a  knife  made  of  stone.  In  this  case,  the  stone-knife 
is  an  object  consecrated  by  religion,  because  the  antiquity  of  this 
instrument  is  actually  lost  in  the  night  of  time. 

Bronze  (or  brass)  is  often  mentioned  in  the  Book  of  Genesis. 
Tubalcain,  the  first  metal-worker  of  the  Scriptures,  who  forged 
iron  for  all  kinds  of  purposes,  also  wrought  in  bronze  (or  brass). 
This  alloy  was  devoted  to  the  production  of  objects  of  ornament. 

We  read  in  the  First  Book  of  Kings  (vii.  13,  14),  "And  King 
Solomon  sent  and  fetched  Hiram  out  of  Tyre.  He  was  a  widow's 
son  of  the  tribe  of  Naphtali,  and  his  father  was  a  man  of  Tyre, 
a  worker  in  brass :  and  he  was  filled  with  wisdom,  and  under- 
standing, and  cunning,  to  work  all  works  in  brass" 

The  word  brass  must  be  here  understood  as  being  synonymous 
with  bronze,  and  certainly  the  Hebrew  term  had  this  signification. 

As  a  specially  remarkable  object  of  bronze  work,  we  may 
mention  the  "sea  of  brass"  of  the  Hebrews,  which  contained 
3000  measures  of  water. 

Herodotus*  speaks  of  another  colossal  basin  made  of  bronze, 
which  was  sixty  times  the  size  of  that  which  Pausanias,  son  of 
Cleobrontos,  presented  to  the  temple  of  Jupiter  Oris,  a  temple 
which  had  been  built  near  the  Euxine,  on  the  borders  of  Scythia. 
Its  capacity  was  six  hundred  amphora,  and  it  was  six  "  fingers  " 

*  Book  iv.  p.  81. 


THE  BRONZE  EPOCH.  211 

in  thickness.     The  Greeks  used  to  employ  these  enormous  basins 
in  their  religious  ceremonies. 

In  Sweden  and  Norway,  large  receptacles  of  a  similar  kind 
were  in  primitive  ages  employed  in  sacrificial  ceremonies ;  they 
used  to  receive  the  blood  which  flowed  from  the  slaughtered 
animals. 

In  order  to  produce  objects  of  this  magnitude  it  was  of  course 
necessary  to  have  at  disposal  large  foundries  of  bronze.  These 
foundries,  which  existed  during  historic  periods,  were  preceded 
by  others  of  less  importance  used  during  the  pre-historic  epochs 
which  we  are  considering,  that  is,  during  the  bronze  epoch. 

Vestiges  of  these  ancient  foundries  have  been  discovered  in 
Switzerland,  at  Devaine,  near  Thonon,  and  at  Walflinger,  near 
Wintherthur;  especially  also  at  Echallens,  where  objects  have 
been  found  which  evidently  originated  from  the  working  of  some 
pre-historic  foundry. 

At  Merges,  in  Switzerland,  a  stone  mould  has  been  discovered 
intended  for  casting  hatchets.  By  running  bronze  into  this  an- 
cient mould  a  hatchet  has  been  made  exactly  similar  to  some  of 
those  in  our  collections. 

The  casting  was  also  effected  in  moulds  of  sand,  which  is  the 
more  usual  and  more  easy  plan. 

From  these  data,  it  is  possible  to  imagine  what  sort  of  place  a 
foundry  must  have  been  during  the  bronze  epoch. 

In  the  production  of  bronze,  they  used  to  mix  oxydated  tin 
ore,  in  the  proportions  which  experience  had  taught  them,  with 
oxydated  copper  ore  or  copper  pyrites ;  to  this  mixture  was  added 
a  small  quantity  of  charcoal.  The  whole  was  placed  in  an  earthen 
vessel  in  the  midst  of  a  burning  furnace.  The  two  oxides  were 
reduced  to  a  metallic  state  by  means  of  the  charcoal ;  the  copper 
and  tin  being  set  free,  blended  and  formed  bronze. 

When  the  alloy  was  obtained,  all  that  was  necessary  was  to 
dip  it  out  and  pour  it  into  sand  or  stone  moulds,  which  had  been 
previously  arranged  for  the  purpose. 

The  art  of  casting  in  bronze  must  have  played  a  very  essen- 
tial part  among  primitive  people.  There  was  no  instrument  that 
they  used  which  could  not  be  made  by  casting  it  in  bronze.  The 
sword-blades  were  thus  made ;  and,  in  order  to  harden  the  edge 


212  THE  AGE   OF  METALS. 

of  the  weapon,  it  was  first  heated  and  then  cooled  suddenly, 
being  afterwards  hammered  with  a  stone  hammer. 

In  Fig.  147  we  represent  the  workshop  of  a  caster  in  bronze 
during  the  epoch  we  are  considering.  The  alloy,  having  been 
previously  mixed,  has  been  smelted  in  a  furnace,  and  a  workman 
is  pouring  it  into  a  sand-mould.  Another  man  is  examining  a 
sword-blade  which  has  just  been  cast. 

Bronze  being  precious,  it  is  probable  that  in  these  ancient  com- 
munities bronze  weapons  and  implements  were  reserved  for  rich 
and  powerful  personages,  and  that  stone  weapons  remained  the 
attribute  of  the  common  people.  The  use  of  bronze  could  only 
become  general  after  the  lapse  of  time. 

The  high  value  of  bronze  would  lead  to  its  being  economised 
as  much  as  possible.  The  Pre-historic  Museum  at  Copenhagen 
contains  unquestionable  proofs  of  this  scarcity  of  the  metal,  and 
the  means  which  were  used  for  obviating  it.  Among  the  bronze 
hatchets  in  the  Museum  of  Copenhagen,  there  are  some  which 
could  only  have  served  as  ornaments,  for  they  contained  a  nucleus 
of  clay,  and  the  metal  of  which  they  were  composed  was  not 
thicker  than  a  sheet  of  paper. 

We  must  also  add  that  worn-out  instruments  of  bronze  and 
utensils  which  were  out  of  use  were  carefully  preserved,  in  order 
to  be  re-cast ;  the  same  material  reappearing  in  various  forms 
and  shapes. 

We  have  just  given  a  representation  of  the  workshop  of  a 
founder  of  bronze ;  but  we  must  also  state  that  in  addition  to 
these  fixed  establishments,  there  must  have  existed,  at  the  epoch 
of  which  we  are  speaking,  certain  itinerant  founders  who  travelled 
about,  carrying  all  their  necessary  utensils  on  their  backs,  and 
offered  their  services  wherever  they  were  required. 

Every  one  is  acquainted  with  the  travelling  tinkers  who,  at 
the  present  day,  make  their  way  down  from  the  mountains  of 
Auvergne,  the  Black  Forest,  the  Alps,  or  the  CeVennes,  and  are 
called  peirerous  and  estama-brazaires  in  the  south  of  France,  and 
fyingliers  in  other  districts.  These  men  are  in  the  habit  of 
working  at  separate  jobs  in  the  villages,  and  even  in  the  public 
places  of  the  towns.  Of  course  they  travel  with  no  more  of  the 
utensils  of  their  craft  than  strict  necessity  requires ;  but,  never- 


THE  BRONZE  EPOCH.  213 

theless,  what  they  carry  is  sufficient  for  every  purpose.  A  hollow 
made  in  the  ground  is  the  furnace  in  which  they  place  the  nozzle 
of  their  portable  bellows,  and  they  hammer  the  iron  on  a  small 
anvil  fixed  in  the  earth. 

Aided  by  these  merely  rudimentary  means  they  execute  pieces 
of  metal-work,  the  dimensions  of  which  are  really  surprising. 
They  make  nails  and  tacks,  and  even  worm-screws,  repair  locks, 
clean  clocks,  make  knives,  mend  skimmers,  and  restore  umbrella 
frames.  They  make  bronze  rings  out  of  republican  decimes,  and 
sell  these  popular  trinkets  to  the  village  beauties. 

Incomparable  in  their  line  of  business,  these  men  are  unequalled 
in  patching  or  re-tinning  vessels  made  of  tin  and  wrought  or 
sheet-iron.  The  mending  of  crockeryware  also  forms  one  of  their 
numerous  vocations ;  and  the  repairing  of  a  broken  plate  by  means 
of  an  iron  rivet  is  mere  play-work  for  their  dexterous  fingers. 
But  melting  down  and  re-casting — these  are  the  real  triumphs  of 
their  art.  The  village  housewife  brings  to  them  her  worn-out 
pewter  vessel,  and  soon  sees  it  re-appear  as  a  new,  brilliant,  and 
polished  utensil.  Lamps,  cans,  covers,  and  tin-plates  and  dishes 
are  thus  made  to  re-appear  in  all  their  primitive  brightness. 

The  fusion  and  casting  of  bronze  does  not  perplex  them  any 
more  than  working  in  tin.  They  are  in  the  habit  of  casting 
various  utensils  in  brass  or  bronze,  such  as  candlesticks,  bells, 
brackets,  &c.  The  crucible  which  they  use  in  melting  brass  is 
nothing  but  a  hole  dug  in  the  earth  and  filled  up  with  burning 
charcoal,  the  fire  being  kept  up  with  the  help  of  their  bellows,  the 
nozzle  of  which  is  lengthened  so  as  to  open  in  the  middle  of  the 
charcoal.  On  this  furnace  they  place  their  portable  crucible, 
which  is  a  kind  of  earthen  ladle  provided  with  a  handle. 

Their  system  of  casting  is  simple  in  the  extreme.  The  pressed 
sand,  which  serves  them  for  a  mould,  is  procured  from  the  ditch 
at  the  side  of  the  road..  Into  this  mould  they  pour  the  alloy  out 
of  the  very  crucible  in  which  it  has  been  melted. 

These  itinerant  metallurgists,  these  estama-brazaires,  who  may 
be  noticed  working  in  the  villages  of  Lower  Languedoc,  whose 
ways  we  have  just  depicted  (not  without  some  degree  of  pleasant 
reminiscence),  are  nothing  but  the  descendants  of  the  travelling 
metal-workers  of  the  pre-historic  bronze  epoch.  In  addition  to  the 


214  THE  AGE  OF  METALS. 

permanent  establishment  of  this  kind — the  foundries,  the  remains 
of  which  have  been  found  in  Switzerland,  the  French  Jura,  Ger- 
many, and  Denmark,  there  certainly  existed  at  that  time  certain 
workmen  who  travelled  about  singly,  from  place  to  place,  exer- 
cising their  trade.  Their  stock  of  tools,  like  the  objects  which 
they  had  to  make  or  repair,  was  of  a  very  simple  character  ;  the 
sand  from  the  wayside  formed  their  moulds,  and  their  fuel  was 
the  dry  wood  of  the  forest. 

The  existence,  at  this  remote  epoch  in  the  history  of  mankind, 
of  the  itinerant  workers  in  metal  is  proved  by  the  fact,  that 
practitioners  of  this  kind  were  known  in  the  earliest  historic 
periods  who  had  already  to  some  extent  become  proficients  in  the 
art.  Moses,  the  Hebrew  lawgiver,  was  able  in  the  wilderness  to 
make  a  brazen  serpent,  the  sight  of  which  healed  the  Israelites 
who  had  been  bitten  by  venomous  snakes ;  and,  during  the 
retirement  of  the  prophet  to  Mount  Sinai,  Aaron  seemed  to  find 
no  difficulty  in  casting  the  golden  calf,  which  was  required  of  him 
by  the  murmurs  of  the  people.  Itinerant  founders  must  there- 
fore have  accompanied  the  Jewish  army. 

We  have  been  compelled  to  dwell  to  some  extent  on  the  general 
considerations  which  bear  upon  the  introduction  of  bronze  among 
the  ancient  inhabitants  of  Europe  who  succeeded  the  men  of 
the  Stone  Age.  In  the  chapters  which  follow  we  intend  as  far 
as  possible  to  trace  out  the  picture  of  that  period  of  man's  his- 
tory, which  is  called  the  Bronze  Epoch,  and  constitutes  the  first 
division  of  the  Age  of  Metals. 


THE  BRONZE  EPOCH.  215 


CHAPTER  II. 

The  Sources  of  Information  at  our  Disposal  for  reconstructing  the  History  of  the 
Bronze  Epoch — The  Lacustrine  Settlements  of  Switzerland — Enumeration  and 
Classification  of  them — Their  Mode  of  Construction — Workmanship  and  Position 
of  the  Piles — Shape  and  Size  of  the  Huts — Population — Instruments  of  Stone, 
Bone,  and  Stag's  Horn — Pottery — Clothing—  Food— Fauna — Domestic  Animals. 

IN  endeavouring  to  trace  out  the  early  history  of  the  human  race, 
we  naturally  turn  our  attention  to  all  the  means  of  investigation 
which  either  study  or  chance  have  placed  at  our  disposal. 
Grottos  and  caves,  the  rock-shelters,  the  ancient  camps,  the 
centres  of  flint-working,  the  Scandinavian  kitchen-middens,  the 
dolmens,  and  the  tumuli — all  have  lent  their  aid  in  affording  those 
elements  for  the  representation  of  the  earliest  epoch  of  the 
history  of  primitive  man  which  we  have  already  considered. 
The  data  which  we  shall  resort  to  for  delineating  the  bronze 
epoch  will  be  of  a  different  kind. 

Among  all  the  sources  of  authentic  information  as  to  the 
manners  and  customs  of  man  in  his  earliest  existence,  none,  cer- 
tainly, are  more  curious  than  those  ancient  remains  which  have 
lately  been  brought  to  light  and  explored,  and  have  received  the 
name  of  lacustrine  dwellings. 

The  question  may  be  asked,  What  are  these  lacustrine  dwellings -, 
and  in  what  way  do  they  serve  to  elucidate  the  history  of  the 
bronze  epoch  ?  These  are  just  the  points  which  we  are  about  to 
explain. 

The  most  important  discoveries  have  often  depended  on  very- 
slight  causes.  This  assertion,  although  it  has  been  made  common 
by  frequent  repetition,  is  none  the  less  perfectly  correct.  To  what 
do  we  owe  the  knowledge  of  a  multitude  of  curious  details  as  to 
pre-historic  peoples  ?  To  an  accidental  and  unusual  depression 
of  the  temperature  in  Switzerland.  But  we  will  explain. 

The  winter  of  1853-1854  was,  in  Switzerland,  so  dry  and  cold 
that  the  waters  of  the  lakes  fell  far  below  their  ordinary  level. 


216  THE  AGE   OF  METALS. 

The  inhabitants  of  Meilan,  a  place  situated  on  the  banks  of  the 
Lake  of  Zurich,  took  advantage  of  this  circumstance,  and  gained 
from  the  lake  a  tract  of  ground,  which  they  set  to  work  to  raise 
and  surround  with  banks. 

In  carrying  out  these  works  they  found  in  the  mud  at  the 
bottom  of  the  lake  a  number  of  piles,  some  thrown  down  and 
others  still  upright,  fragments  of  rough  pottery,  bone  and  stone 
instruments,  and  various  other  relics  similar  to  those  found  in 
the  Danish  peat-bogs. 

This  extraordinary  accumulation  of  objects  of  all  kinds  on  the 
dried  bed  of  the  lake  appeared  altogether  inexplicable,  and  every 
one  was  at  fault  in  their  remarks  ;  but  Dr.  Keller,  of  Zurich,  having 
examined  the  objects,  at  once  came  to  a  right  understanding  as  to 
their  signification.  It  was  evident  to  him  that  they  belonged  to 
pre-historic  times.  By  an  association  of  ideas  which  no  one  had 
previously  dreamt  of,  he  perceived  that  a  relation  existed  between 
the  piles  and  the  other  relics  discovered  in  the  vicinity,  and  saw 
clearly  that  both  dated  back  to  the  same  epoch.  He  thus  came 
to  the  conclusion,  that  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  the  Lake  of 
Zurich  were  in  the  habit  of  constructing  dwellings  over  the 
water,  and  that  the  same  custom  must  have  existed  as  regards 
the  other  Swiss  lakes. 

This  idea  was  developed  by  Dr.  Keller  in  five  very  remarkable 
memoirs,  which  were  published  in  German.* 

This  discovery  was  the  spark  which  lighted  up  a  torch  destined 
to  dissipate  the  darkness  which  hung  over  a  long-protracted  and 
little-known  period  of  man's  history. 

Previous  to  the  discovery  made  on  the  dried-up  bed  of  the  Lake 
of  Zurich,  various  instruments  and  singular  utensils  had  been 
obtained  from  the  mud  of  some  of  the  lakes  of  Switzerland,  and 
piles  had  often  been  noticed  standing  up  in  the  depths  of  the 
water ;  but  no  one  had  been  able  to  investigate  these  vestiges  of 
another  age,  or  had  had  any  idea  of  ascribing  to  them  anything 
like  the  remote  antiquity  which  has  since  been  recognised  as  be- 
longing to  them.  To  Dr.  Keller  the  honour  is  due  of  having  in- 
terpreted these  facts  in  their  real  bearing,  at  a  time  when  every- 
one else  looked  upon  them  as  nothing  but  objects  of  curiosity. 

*  "  Pfahlbauten,"  Zurich,  1854-1856. 


THE  BRONZE  EPOCH.  217 

It  is,  therefore,  only  just  to  pronounce  the  physician  of  Zurich  to 
have  been  the  first  originator  of  pre-historic  archaeological 
science  in  Switzerland. 

In  1854,  after  the  publication  of  Dr.  Keller's  first  article,  the 
Swiss  lakes  were  explored  with  much  energy,  and  it  was  not  long 
before  numerous  traces  of  human  settlements  were  discovered. 
At  the  present  day  more  than  200  are  known,  and  every  year 
fresh  ones  are  being  found.* 

Thanks  to  the  activity  which  has  been  shown  by  a  great  num- 
ber of  observers,  magnificent  collections  have  been  formed  of  these 
archaeological  treasures.  The  fishermen  of  the  lakes  have  been 
acquainted,  for  many  years  back,  with  the  sites  of  some  of  these 
settlements,  in  consequence  of  having,  on  many  occasions,  torn 
their  nets  on  the  piles  sticking  up  in  the  mud.  Numerous  ques- 
tions were  asked  them,  and  they  were  taken  as  guides  to  the  dif- 
ferent spots,  and  ere  long  a  whole  system  of  civilisation,  hereto- 
fore unknown,  emerged  from  the  beds  of  the  Swiss  lakes. 

Among  the  lakes  which  have  furnished  the  largest  quantity  of 
relics  of  pre-historic  ages,  we  may  mention  that  of  Neuchatel,  in 
which,  in  1867,  no  less  than  forty-six  settlements  were  counted  ; 
in  Lake  Constance  (thirty-two  settlements)  ;  in  the  Lake  of 
Geneva  (twenty-four  settlements) ;  in  the  Lake  of  Bienne,  canton 
of  Berne  (twenty  settlements)  ;  in  the  Lake  of  Morat,  canton  of 
Fribourg  (eight  settlements). 

Next  come  several  other  lakes  of  less  importance.  The  Lake 
of  Zurich  (three  settlements)  ;  the  Lake  of  Pfseffikon,  canton  of 
Zurich  (four  settlements)  ;  the  Lake  of  Sempach,  canton  of 
Lucerne  (four  settlements)  ;  the  Lake  of  Moosseedorf,  canton  of 
Berne  (two  settlements)  ;  the  Lake  of  Inkwyl,  near  Soleure  (one 
settlement)  ;  the  Lake  of  Nussbaumen,  canton  of  Thurgau  (one 
settlement)  ;  the  Lake  of  Zug,  &c. 

*  Various  distinguished  savants  have  taken  upon  themselves  the  task  of  making 
known  to  the  public  the  results  of  these  unceasing  investigations,  and  of  bringing 
before  the  eyes  of  the  present  generation  the  ancient  civilisation  of  the  Swiss  valleys. 
Among  the  works  which  have  best  attained  this  end,  we  must  mention  Troyon's 
"  Habitations  Lacustres  des  Temps  anciens  et  modernes,"  Morlot's  ' '  Etudes  Geologico- 
archeologiques  en  Danemark  et  en  Suisse,"  and  M.  Desor's  "  Palafittes,  ou  Construc- 
tions Lacustres  du  Lac  de  Neuchatel."  These  works,  which  have  been  translated  into- 
various  languages,  contain  a  statement  of  all  the  archaeological  discoveries  which  have 
been  made  in  Switzerland. 


218  THE  AGE  OF  METALS. 

Pile-work  has  also  been  discovered  in  former  lakes  now  trans- 
formed into  peat-bogs.  We  must  place  in  this  class  the  peat- 
bog of  Wauwyl,  canton  of  Lucerne  (five  settlements). 

We  will  mention,  in  the  last  place,  the  settlement  at  the  bridge 
of  Thiele,  on  the  water-course  which  unites  the  lakes  of  Bienne 
and  Neuchatel.  This  settlement  must  once  have  formed  a  por- 
tion of  the  Lake  of  Bienne,  at  the  time  when  the  latter  extended 
as  far  as  the  bridge  of  Thiele. 

The  lacustrine  villages  of  Switzerland  do  not  all  belong  to  the 
same  period.  The  nature  of  the  remains  that  they  contain  in- 
dubitably prove  that  some  are  far  more  ancient  than  others.  The 
vestiges  have  been  discovered  of  three  successive  epochs — the 
polished-stone  epoch  and  the  epochs  of  bronze  and  of  iron. 

The  lacustrine  settlements  of  Switzerland,  when  considered 
under  the  heads  of  the  various  pre-historical  epochs  to  which 
they  belong,  may  be  divided  in  the  following  way  : — 

The  Stone  Age  : — The  Lake  of  Constance  (about  thirty  settle- 
ments) ;  and  Lake  of  Neuchatel  (twelve  settlements) ;  the  Lake 
of  Geneva  (two  settlements) ;  the  Lake  of  Morat  (one  settle- 
ment) ;  the  lakes  of  Bienne,  Zurich,  Pfaefnkon,  Inkwyl,  Moossee- 
dorf,  Nussbaumen,  Wanger,  &c. ;  the  settlements  of  Saint-Aubin 
and  Concise,  the  peat-bog  of  Wauwyl,  and  the  settlement  at  the 
bridge  of  Thiele. 

The  Bronze  Epoch: — The  Lake  of  Geneva  (twenty  settlements) ; 
the  Lake  of  Neuchatel  (twenty-five  settlements)  ;  the  Lake  of 
Bienne  (ten  settlements) ;  also  the  lakes  of  Morat  and  Sempach. 

The  Iron  Epoch : — The  lakes  of  Neuchatel  and  Bienne. 

It  may  appear  strange  that  the  primitive  inhabitants  of 
Switzerland  should  have  preferred  aquatic  dwellings  to  habita- 
tions built  on  terra  finna,  which  could  certainly  have  been  con- 
structed much  more  easily.  Further  on  in  our  work  we  shall 
have  something  to  say  as  to  the  advantages  which  men  might 
derive  from  such  a  peculiar  arrangement  of  their  dwellings  ;  but 
we  may  now  remark  that  this  custom  was  somewhat  prevalent 
among  the  earliest  inhabitants  of  Europe.  Ancient  history  fur- 
nishes us  with  several  instances  of  it.  Herodotus,  speaking  of 
the  Paeonians,  of  the  Lake  Prasias,  in  Thrace,  says  : — 

"Their  habitations  are  built  in  the  following  way.  On  long 
piles,  sunk  into  the  bottom  of  the  lake,  planks  are  placed,  form- 


THE  BRONZE  EPOCH.  219 

ing  a  floor  ;  a  narrow  bridge  is  the  means  of  access  to  them. 
These  piles  used  to  be  fixed  by  the  inhabitants  at  their  joint 
expense;  but  afterwards  it  was  settled  'that  each  man  should 
bring  three  from  Mount  Orbelus  for  every  woman  whom  he 
married.  Plurality  of  wives,  be  it  observed,  was  permitted  in 
this  country.  On  these  planks  each  has  his  hut  with  a  trap-door 
down  into  the  lake  ;  and  lest  any  of  their  children  should  fall 
through  this  opening  they  took  care  to  attach  a  cord  to  their  feet. 
They  used  to  feed  their  horses  and  beasts  of  burden  on  fish.  In 
this  lake  fish  was  so  abundant  that  if  a  basket  was  let  down 
through  the  trap-door  it  might  be  drawn  up  a  short  time  after- 
wards filled  with  fish." 

Sir  J.  Lubbock,  repeating  the  statement  of  one  of  his  friends 
who  resides  at  Salonica,  asserts  that  the  fishermen  of  the  Lake 
Prasias  still  inhabit  wooden  huts  built  over  the  water,  as  in  the 
time  of  Herodotus.  There  is  nothing  improbable  in  this,  since  the 
town  of  Tcherkask  in  Russia  is  constructed  in  a  similar  way  over 
the  River  Don,  and  Venice  itself  is  nothing  but  a  lacustrine  city 
built  during  historic  times  over  a  lagune  of  the  Adriatic  sea. 

We  may  add  that  even  in  modern  times  this  custom  of  building 
villages  on  piles  still  exists  in  some  parts  of  the  world.  According 
to  the  evidence  of  Dampier  and  Dumont  d'Urville,  habitations 
built  on  piles  are  to  be  met  with  in  New  Guinea,  Celebes,  Ceram, 
Mindanao,  the  Caroline  Islands,  &c.  The  city  of  Borneo  is,  in- 
deed, entirely  built  on  this  plan.  In  some  of  the  isles  of  the 
Pacific  Ocean  there  are  several  tribes  of  savages  who  likewise 
make  their  dwellings  over  water.  The  Indians  of  Venezuela 
have  adopted  this  custom  with  the  sole  intention  of  sheltering 
themselves  from  the  mosquitoes. 

It  is  quite  permissible  to  suppose  that  the  need  for  security 
was  the  motive  which  induced  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  Switzer- 
land, and  other  countries,  thus  to  make  settlements  and  live  upon 
the  lakes.  Surrounded  as  they  were  by  vast  marshes  and  im- 
penetrable forests,  they  lived  in  dread  of  the  attacks  of  numerous 
wild  beasts.  They  therefore  taxed  their  ingenuity  to  ensure  their 
safety  as  far  as  they  possibly  could,  and  no  means  appeared  more 
efficacious  than  that  of  surrounding  themselves  with  water.  At 
a  subsequent  period,  when  men  commenced  to  make  war  against 
one  another,  these  aquatic  habitations  became  still  more  valu- 


220  THE  AGE   OF  METALS. 

able.  They  then  constituted  something  in  the  nature  of  camps 
or  fortifications  in  which,  being  well  protected  from  all  danger  of 
sudden  surprise,  the  people  of  the  country  could  defy  the  efforts 
of  their  enemies. 

We  must,  however,  add,  that  in  more  recent  times  these  build- 
ings on  piles  were — according  to  M.  Desor — used  only  as  store- 
houses for  utensils  and  provisions  ;  the  actual  dwellings  for  men 
being  built  on  terra  finna. 

These  lacustrine  dwellings  are  designated  under  various  names 
by  different  authors.  Dr.  Keller,  who  was  the  first  to  describe 
them,  gave  them  in  German  the  name  of  pfahlbauten  (buildings 
on  piles)  which  the  Italians  have  translated  by  the  word  palafitta. 
This  latter  appellation,  when  Gallicised  by  M.  Desor,  becomes 


Fig.  148. — Section  of  the  Teneviere  of  Hauterive. 

palafitte.  Lastly,  the  name  tenevteres  or  Steinbergs  (mountains  of 
stone)  is  given  to  constructions  of  a  peculiar  character  in  which  the 
piles  are  kept  up  by  masses  of  stone  which  have  been  brought  to 
the  spot.  By  Dr.  Keller  this  latter  kind  are  called,  packwerkbauten. 

When  we  examine  as  a  whole  the  character  of  the  lacustrine 
settlements  which  have  hitherto  been  discovered,  it  may,  in  fact, 
be  perceived  that  those  who  bnilt  them  proceeded  on  two  dif- 
ferent systems  of  construction  ;  either  they  buried  the  piles  very 
deeply  in  the  bed  of  the  lake,  and  on  these  piles  placed  the  plat- 
form which  was  to  support  their  huts  ;  or,  they  artificially  raised 
the  bed  of  the  lake  by  means  of  heaps  of  stones,  fixing  in  these 
heap  somewhat  large  stakes,  not  so  much  for  the  purpose  of  sup- 
porting the  habitations  themselves,  as  with,  a  view  of  making  the 
heaps  of  stones  a  firm  and  compact  body. 

This  latter  mode  of  construction  is  represented  in  Fig.  148, 
taken  from  a  design  given  by  M.  Desor  in  his  remarkable  work 
"Les  Palafittes."* 

*  "  Les  Palafittes,  ou  Constructions  Lacustres  du  Lac  de  Neuchatel."     Paris,  1865. 


THE  BRONZE  EPOCH.  221 

One  or  the  other  of  these  modes  of  construction  was  employed 
according  to  the  nature  of  the  bed  of  the  lake.  In  lakes  with  a 
muddy  bottom,  the  first  plan  could  be  easily  employed  ;  but  when 
the  bed  was  rocky  it  was  necessary  to  have  recourse  to  the  second. 
This  is  the  reason  why  on  the  northern  shore  of  the  Lake  of  Neu- 
chatel,  where  the  banks  of  limestone  come  very  close  to  the  surface, 
a  comparatively  large  number  of  tenevttres  may  be  observed. 

These  are  the  facts  as  generally  noticed,  especially  in  wide  and 
deep  lakes ;  the  edifice,  however,  was  not  always  constructed  in 
this  mode.  In  marshes  and  small  lakes,  which  have  now  become 
peat-bogs,  another  system  was  frequently  applied,  a  remarkable 
instance  of  which  is  furnished  by  the  peat-moss  at  Wauwyl.  In 
this  locality  were  found  several  quadrangular  spaces  very  dis- 
tinctly enclosed  by  piles,  between  which  were  raised  as  many  as 
five  platforms  one  above  the  other.  These  piles  are  naturally 
very  long,  and  some  are  buried  as  much  as  seven  feet  in  the  solid 
ground — an  operation  which  must  have  required  an  enormous 
amount  of  labour.  The  intervals  between  the  platforms  are  filled 
up  with  boughs  of  trees  and  clay,  and  the  floors  themselves  are 
made  in  nearly  the  same  way  as  those  we  have  before  mentioned. 
The  lowest  rested  directly  on  the  bed  of  the  lake,  and  on  the 
upper  one  the  huts  were  placed. 

It  is  sometimes  the  case  that  these  heaps  of  stones  rise  above 
the  water ;  they  then  form  perfect  artificial  islands,  and  the 
habitations  which  covered  them  are  no  longer,  properly  speaking, 
dwellings  on  piles.  Of  this  kind  is  the  station  on  the  Lake  of. 
Inkwyl  in  Switzerland ;  of  this  kind,  also,  are  the  crannoges  of 
Ireland,  of  which  we  shall  subsequently  make  special  mention. 
Some  of  these  artificial  islands  have  braved  the  destructive  action 
of  ages,  and  are  still  inhabited  at  the  present  time.  M.  Desor 
mentions  the  Isle  of  Roses  in  the  Lake  of  Starnberg  (Bavaria) 
which  has  never  been  known  to  have  been  unfrequented  by  man; 
it  now  contains  a  royal  residence. 

Let  us  revert  to  the  mode  of  construction  of  the  aquatic  dwell- 
ings of  Switzerland. 

In  all  probability  the  stones  used  were  conveyed  to  the  required 
spot  by  means  of  canoes  made  of  hollowed-out  trunks  of  trees. 
Several  of  these  canoes  may  still  be  seen  at  the  bottom  of  Lake 
Bienne,  and  one,  indeed,  is  still  laden  with  pebbles,  which  leads  us 


222  THE  AGE   OF  METALS. 

_J_  to  think  that  it  must  have  foundered  with  its  cargo.  But  it  is 
very  difficult  to  raise  these  canoes  from  the  bottom,  and  it  is, 
besides,  probable  that  when  exposed  to  the  open  air  they  would 
fall  to  dust.  Nevertheless,  one  of  them  is  exhibited  in  the 
Museum  at  Neuchatel. 

In  the  Museum  at  Saint-Germain  there  is  a  canoe  very  similar 
to  that  of  Neuchatel.  It  is'  made  out  of  the  trunk  of  a  hollow 
tree.  A  second  canoe,  very  like  the  first,  but  with  the  bark  still 
on  it,  and  in  a  bad  state  of  preservation,  lies  in  the  entry  of  the 
same  Museum  of  Saint-Germain.  It  was  taken  out  of  the  Seine, 
as  we  stated  when  speaking  in  a  previous  chapter  of  the  first 
discovery  of  the  art  of  navigation  during  the  Stone  Age. 

It  may  very  easily  be  explained  how  the  constructors  went  to 
work  in  felling  the  trees  and  converting  them  into  piles.  M. 
Desor  has  remarked  that  the  pieces  of  wood  composing  the  piles 
are  cut  cleanly  through  round  their  circumference  only;  the 
central  part  shows  inequalities  just  like  those  which  are  noticed 
when  a  stick  is  broken  in  two  by  the  hand  after  having  been  cut 
into  all  round  the  outside.  The  builders  of  the  lacustrine  villages, 
therefore,  when  they  wanted  to  fell  a  tree,  must  have  acted  much 
as  follows ;  having  cut  all  round  it  to  a  depth  of  3  or  4  inches, 
they  fixed  a  cord  to  the  top,  and  broke  the  tree  down  by  forcibly 
pulling  at  the  upper  part.  They  then  cut  it  through  in  the  same 
way  with  stone  or  bronze  hatchets,  giving  it  the  requisite  length, 
hewing  it  into  a  point  at  one  end  so  that  it  should  more  easily 
penetrate  the  mud.  Sometimes  a  fire  applied  to  the  base  of  the 
tree  prepared  for  and  facilitated  the  effect  of  the  sharp  instru- 
ments used.  A  great  number  of  the  piles  that  have  been  found 
still  bear  the  marks  of  the  fire  and  the  cuts  made  by  stone 
hatchets.  In  constructing  the  tenevieres,  the  labour  of  pointing 
the  piles  was  needless,  as  the  latter  were  thoroughly  wedged  in 
by  the  accumulation  of  stones  of  which  we  gave  a  representation 
in  Fig.  148. 

When  the  piles  were  prepared,  they  had  to  be  floated  to  the 
spot  fixed  upon  for  the  village,  and  to  be  fixed  in  the  bed  of  the 
lake.  If  we  consider  that,  in  many  cases,  the  length  of  these  piles 
reached  to  as  much  as  1 6  or  20  feet,  some  idea  may  be  formed  of 
the  difficulty  of  an  undertaking  of  this  kind.  In  the  construction 
of  the  tenevteres  much  thicker  piles  were  used,  and  the  labour 


THE  BRONZE  EPOCH.  223 

was  much  less  difficult.  For  instance,  in  the  more  ancient  tene- 
vttres  of  the  Lake  of  Neuchatel  piles  are  found  made  of  whole 
trunks  of  trees  which  measure  10  to  12  inches  in  diameter. 

The  mind  is  almost  confused  when  it  endeavours  to  sum  up  the  v 
amount  of  energy  and  strong  will  which  the  primitive  population 
of  Switzerland  must  have  bestowed  on  constructing,  unaided  as 
they  were  by  metal  implements,  the  earliest  lacustrine  settlements, 
some  of  which  are  of  very  considerable  extent.  The  settlement 
of  Morges,  one  of  the  largest  in  the  Lake  of  Geneva,  is  not  less 
than  71,000  square  yards  in  area.  That  of  Chabrey,  in  the  Lake 
of  Neuchatel,  measures  about  60,000  square  yards ;  another,  in 
the  same  lake,  48,000  yards  ;  and,  lastly,  a  third,  that  of  La  Tene, 
36,000  yards.  There  are  many  others  which  are  smaller,  although 
of  respectable  dimensions. 

The  number  of  piles  which  must  have  been  used  in  some  of 
these  constructions  is  really  surprising.  M.  Lohle  has  calculated 
that  in  the  single  lacustrine  village  of  Wangen,  in  the  Lake  of 
Constance,  at  least  40,000  piles  have  been  fixed,  and  that  several 
generations  must  have  been  necessary  to  terminate  the  work. 
The  more  reasonable  interpretation  to  give  to  a  fact  of  this  kind 
is  that  Wangen,  which  was  very  thinly  populated  at  first,  in- 
creased in  size  gradually  as  the  number  of  inhabitants  aug- 
mented. The  same  remark  may  be  doubtless  applied  to  all  the 
important  stations. 

This  was  the  plan  employed  in  building  a  single  habitation. 
When  a  whole  village  had  to  be  built  in  the  open  water,  a 
methodical  course  of  action  was  adopted.  They  began  by  placing 
a  certain  number  of  piles  parallel  to  the  shore,  and  these  they  at 
once  threw  across  the  bridge  which  was  intended  to  connect  the 
village  with  the  land,  thus  rendering  the  carriage  of  the  materials 
much  less  difficult. 

When  the  bridge  was  finished,  and  before  fixing  all  the  piles, 
the  platform  was  commenced  immediately  ;  this  constituted  a 
base  of  operations,  by  the  help  of  which  the  pile  work  could  more 
easily  be  finished. 

This  platform  was  raised  3  or  4  feet  above  the  surface  of  the 
water,  so  as  to  obviate  any  danger  arising  from  the  waves  during 
a  tempest.  It  was  generally  composed  of  branches  and  trunks 
of  trees,  not  squared,  and  bound  horizontally  to  each  other,  the 


224  THE  AGE   OF  METALS. 

whole  cemented  together  with  clay ;  sometimes,  also,  they  used 
thick,  rough  slabs,  which  were  obtained  by  splitting  trunks  of 
trees  with  wedges.  The  platform  was  fixed  firmly  on  the  pile- 
work,  and  in  some  cases  wooden  pegs  were  used  to  fasten  together 
the  largest  pieces  of  timber,  so  that  the  cohesion  and  incorpora- 
tion of  the  floor  was  rendered  more  complete.  As  soon  as  the 
esplanade  was  finished,  they  then  proceeded  to  the  construction 
of  the  huts. 

The  huts  must  have  opened  on  to  the  platform  by  doors.  Did 
they  possess  windows  ?  Nothing  is  known  as  to  this  point.  But 
in  all  probability  there  was  an  opening  at  the  top  of  the  roof 
through  which  the  smoke  of  the  fire  made  its  way.  To  avoid 
any  fear  of  conflagration,  a  stone  fireplace  was  placed  in  the 
middle  of  each  dwelling.  The  daylight  must  have  come  in 
through  the  hole  in  the  roof  in  a  quantity  almost  sufficient  to 
cause  the  absence  of  windows  to  be  not  much  felt. 

In  each  habitation  there  was,  no  doubt,  a  trap-door  in  direct 
communication  with  the  lake,  such  as  those  which  existed  in  the 
dwellings  of  the  Paeonians  described  by  Herodotus.  Under  this 
trap-door  there  was  a  reservoir  made  of  osiers,  intended  for  the 
preservation  of  fish. 

As  the  inhabitants  of  the  lacustrine  villages  only  lived  upon 
the  water  with  a  view  of  increasing  their  security,  it  would  be 
absurd  to  suppose  that  they  would  construct  a  large  number  of 
bridges  between  their  aquatic  settlement  and  the  banks  of  the 
lake.  There  must  have  been,  in  general,  but  one  bridge  for  each 
of  these  lake  villages. 

How  were  the  huts  constructed,  and  what  were  their  shape  and 
dimensions  ?  These  questions  certainly  seem  difficult  to  answer, 
for,  as  may  be  well  imagined,  no  specimen  of  these  ancient  dwell- 
ings has  been  preserved  to  our  days.  Nevertheless,  a  few  relics, 
insignificant  in  appearance,  enable  us  to  reply  to  these  inquiries 
in  a  way  more  or  less  satisfactory. 

Everything  seems  to  indicate  that  the  huts  were  formed  of 
trunks  of  trees  placed  upright,  one  by  the  side  of  the  other,  and 
bound  together  horizontally  by  interwoven  branches.  A  coating 
of  earth  covered  this  wattling. 

It  has  been  fancied,  from  the  imprint  left  by  some  of  the 
branches  which  were  used  in  building  these  huts,  that  it  might 


Lkl 


THE  BRONZE  EPOCH.  225 

be  inferred  that  they  were  circular,  like  those  which  historians 
attribute  to  the  ancient  Gauls.  This  was  Troyon's  opinion,  and 
at  first  Dr.  Keller's  also.  This  author  has  even  sketched  a  cir- 
cular hut  in  a  plate  representing  a  restored  lacustrine  habitation, 
which  accompanies  one  of  his  memoirs.  Sir  C.  Lyell,  also,  has 
reproduced  this  same  plate  in  the  frontispiece  of  his  work  on  the 
"  Antiquity  of  Man."  But  Dr.  Keller  has  subsequently  abandoned 
this  idea,  and  in  another  of  his  memoirs  he  has  supplied  a  fresh 
design,  showing  nothing  but  huts  with  flat  or  sloping  roofs. 

From  this  latter  plate,  taken  from  Dr.  Keller's  work,  we  here 
give  a  representation  of  a  Swiss  lacustrine  village  (Fig.  149). 

The  suggestions  for  this  reconstructive  sketch  were  furnished 
to  Dr.  Keller,  not  only  by  various  scientific  indications,  but  also 
and  especially  by  a  drawing  made  by  Dumont  d'Urville  among 
the  Papuans  of  New  Guinea. 

According  to  Dr.  Keller,  during  the  last  century  there  still 
existed  on  the  river  Limmat,  near  Zurich,  some  fishermen's  huts 
built  in  a  similar  way  to  those  of  the  lacustrine  villages. 

What  might  have  been  the  population  of  one  of  these  settle- 
ments ?  This  estimate  M.  Troyon  endeavoured  to  make — an 
undertaking  of  a  very  interesting  nature.  He  adopted  as  the 
base  of  his  calculations  the  lacustrine  village  of  Merges  (Lake  of 
Geneva),  which,  as  we  have  already  stated,  had  an  area  of  71,000 
square  yards.  Allowing  that  only  one-half  of  this  area  was 
occupied  by  huts,  the  other  half  being  reserved  for  gangways 
between  the  dwellings,  and  assuming  an  average  diameter  of  16 
feet  for  each  hut,  M.  Troyon  reckoned  the  number  of  dwellings 
in  the  pre-historic  village  of  Merges  at  311.  Next,  supposing 
that  four  individuals  lived  in  each  hut,  the  total  amount  of  popu- 
lation he  arrived  at  was  1,244  inhabitants. 

We  might  very  justly  be  surprised  if  the  men  of  the  bronze 
epoch,  who  were  provided  with  metallic  weapons,  and  were  con- 
sequently in  a  much  better  position  for  resisting  any  violent  attack, 
had  continued  to  dwell  exclusively  in  the  midst  of  the  water,  and 
should  not,  to  some  extent,  have  dispersed  over  terra  firma,  which 
is  man's  natural  standing-ground.  It  was,  therefore,  nothing 
more  than  might  have  been  expected,  when  the  discovery  was 
made  of  the  relics  of  dwellings  upon  land,  containing  remains  of 
the  bronze  epoch.  This  discovery,  in  fact,  took  place,  and  those 

Q 


226  THE  AGE   OF  METALS. 

investigating  the  subject  came  to  the  conclusion  that  the  valleys 
of  Switzerland,  as  well  as  the  lakes,  were  occupied  during  this 
period  by  an  industrious  and  agricultural  people. 

At  Ebersberg,  canton  of  Zurich,  there  was  discovered — which  is 
a  very  curious  fact — the  remains  of  an  ancient  settlement  situated 
on  terra  firma,  and  containing  utensils  similar  to  those  found  in 
the  lacustrine  settlements.  In  1864,  Dr.  Clement  searched  several 
mounds  composed  of  pebbles  bearing  the  traces  of  fire ;  these 
mounds  were  situated  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Gorgier  (canton  of 
Neuchatel).  One  of  these  mounds  has  furnished  various  objects 
of  bronze  intermingled  with  fragments  of  charcoal,  especially  a 
bracelet  and  some  sickles  characterised  by  a  projection  or  set-off 
at  the  spring  of  the  blade. 

On  the  plateau  of  Granges  (canton  of  Soleure),  Dr.  Schild 
studied  a  certain  spot  which  he  considers  to  be  the  site  of  an 
ancient  bronze  foundry ;  for,  besides  finding  there  pebbles  and 
calcined  earth,  he  also  discovered  a  number  of  reaping-hooks 
made  with  a  shoulder,  and  also  a  fragment  of  a  sword  and  four 
finely-made  knives. 

A  hatchet-knife  was  likewise  found  in  the  gorge  of  the  Seyon, 
near  Neuchatel ;  and  a  bracelet  in  the  vicinity  of  Morges  (canton 
of  Geneva).  Some  other  bracelets,  accompanied  by  calcined 
human  bones,  were  discovered  near  Sion,  in  the  Valais. 

Lastly,  M.  Thioly  obtained  from  a  cave  of  Mont  Saleve,  near 
Geneva,  numerous  fragments  of  pottery  of  the  bronze  epoch  ;  and 
in  a  grotto  on  the  banks  of  the  Reuse,  in  the  canton  of  Neuchatel, 
M.  Otz  found  relics  of  pottery  of  very  fine  clay,  along  with  a 
quantity  of  bones. 

Thus  the  people  of  this  epoch  did  not  dwell  exclusively  in 
settlements  made  over  the  water.  They  also  were  in  the  habit  of 
building  habitations  on  terra  firma,  and  of  furnishing  them  with 
everything  which  was  necessary  for  existence. 

All  the  facts  which  have  been  observed  in  Switzerland  may, 
doubtless,  be  applied  generally ;  and  it  may  be  said  that  during 
the  bronze  epoch  the  nature  of  man's  habitation  became  decidedly 
fixed.  The  caves  of  the  great  bear  and  mammoth  period,  and  the 
rock-shelters  of  the  reindeer  and  polished-stone  periods  were  now 
succeeded  by  dwelling-places  which  differ  but  little  from  those  of 
the  more  civilised  peoples  who  commence  the  era  of  historic  times. 


THE  BRONZE  EPOCH.  227 


CHAPTER   III. 

Lacustrine  Habitations  of  Upper  Italy,  Bavaria,  Carinthia  and  Carniola,  Pomerania, 
France,  and  England — The  Crannoges  of  Ireland. 

IT  was  difficult  to  believe  that  Switzerland  alone  possessed  the 
monopoly  of  these  pilework-constructions.  It  was  certainly  to  be 
supposed  that  the  southern  slopes  of  the  Alps,  which  were  all 
dotted  over  with  large  and  beautiful  lakes,  must  likewise  contain 
constructions  of  a  similar  character  ;  this,  at  least,  was  M.  Desor's 
opinion.  After  the  numerous  pre-historic  discoveries  which  had 
been  made  in  Switzerland,  the  Zurich  professor  proceeded  in  1860 
to  explore  the  lakes  of  Lombardy,  being  well  convinced  that  there 
too  he  should  find  remains  of  lacustrine  habitations. 

The  hopes  he  had  formed  were  not  deceived.  Ere  long,  in 
fact,  M.  Desor  obtained  from  the  peat-bogs  round  Lake  Maggiore 
piles  and  other  objects  similar  to  those  found  in  the  Swiss  lakes. 
These  researches  were  continued  by  MM.  Gastaldi  and  Moro, 
who  discovered  in  the  peat-bogs  round  this  lake  several  ancient 
villages  built  upon  piles. 

In  the  Lake  of  Varese,  also  in  Lombardy,  which  was  examined 
in  1863  by  MM.  Desor,  G.  de  Mortillet,  and  the  Abbe  Stoppani, 
were  discovered  five  settlements,  some  of  which  were  of  the  Stone 
Age.  Subsequently,  the  Abbe  Ranchet  pointed  out  four  others, 
which  raise  to  the  number  of  nine  the  pileworks  found  in  this 
lake.  In  order  to  render  due  honour  to  MM.  Kellor  and  Desor, 
who  have  contributed  so  much  to  the  investigation  and  popularity 
of  lacustrine  antiquities,  the  Abbe  Stoppani  gave  the  name  of 
these  savants  to  two  of  the  settlements. 

One  of  these  isles  is  very  curious,  as  it  is  inhabited  up  to  the 
present  day.  It  is  called  Isoletta  ("  small  island  "),  and  the  Litta 
family  possess  a  chateau  upon  it. 

In  the  peat-mosses  of  Brianza,  a  portion  of  Lombardy  situated 
to  the  north  of  Milan,  the  remains  of  lacustrine  constructions 
have  been  discovered,  together  with  bones,  fragments  of  pottery, 


228  THE  AGE   OF  METALS. 

pieces  of  charcoal,  and  carbonised  stone  ;  also  weapons,  both  of 
bronze  and  flint. 

The  Lake  of  Garda  has  been  searched  over  by  various  explorers, 
who  have  discovered  in  it  the  sites  of  several  lacustrine  habitations. 
The  authors  of  these  discoveries  are  Dr.  Alberti,  of  Veroni,  and 
MM.  Kosterlitz  and  Silber,  two  Austrian  officers,  who  presented  all 
the  objects  which  they  collected  to  the  antiquarian  museums  of 
Vienna  and  Zurich.  The  traces  of  pileworks  were  first  perceived 
when  the  works  were  in  progress  which  were  excavated  by  the 
Austrians  in  1855  round  the  fortress  of  Peschiera  ;  which  proves,  at 
least,  that  fortresses  may  occasionally  serve  some  useful  purpose. 

A  settlement  of  the  Stone  Age,  which  was  examined  by  M. 
Paolo  Lioy,  is  situated  in  a  small  lake  in  Venetia,  the  length  of 
which  does  not  exceed  half  a  mile,  and  the  depth  30  feet ;  we 
allude  to  the  Lake  of  Fimon,  near  Vicenza.  M.  Lioy  discovered 
oaken  piles  partially  charred,  which  proves  that  the  village  had  at 
one  time  been  burnt  down  ;  also  slabs  of  timber  roughly  squared, 
a  canoe  hollowed  out  of  a  trunk  of  oak,  cakes  of  clay  which  had 
come  from  the  sides  of  huts,  and  still  bore  the  imprint  of  the 
reed-stalks,  and  no  doubt  formed  a  kind  of  coating  inside  the 
huts  ;  various  instruments  made  of  bone,  flint,  sandstone,  granite, 
and  stag's  horn  ;  rings  or  spindle-weights  made  of  burnt  earth, 
numerous  fragments  of  rough  pottery,  merely  dried  in  the  sun, 
and,  among  all  these  remains,  a  dozen  entire  vessels. 

There  were  also  found  stores  of  acorns,  nuts,  and  water-chest- 
nuts, the  fruit  of  the  sorb-tree,  some  sloe-stones,  &c.  A  large 
quantity  of  animal  bones  certified  to  the  existence  of  the  bison, 
the  stag,  the  wild  boar,  the  fox,  and  several  other  doubtful  species. 
All  the  long  bones  were  broken,  as  is  usually  the  case,  for  the 
extraction  of  the  marrow,  but  not  with  the  ordinary  regularity  ; 
they  had  merely  been  cracked  by  blows  with  stones. 

The  investigation  of  lacustrine  antiquities  which  had  been  in- 
augurated in  Switzerland  could  hardly  stop  short  in  its  path  of 
progress.  Attempts  were  made  to  discover  palafittes  in  other 
countries,  and  these  attempts  met  with  success. 

Thanks  to  the  initiative  action  taken  by  M.  Desor,  and  the 
liberality  of  the  Bavarian  Government,  pile-works  of  ancient  date 
have  been  discovered  in  six  of  the  Bavarian  lakes.  Most  of  them 


THE  BRONZE  EPOCH.  229 

go  back  to  the  Stone  Age,  but  some  belong  to  the  bronze  epoch. 
Among  the  latter  we  may  mention  the  Isles  of  Roses,  in  the  Lake 
of  Starnberg,  which  is,  in  fact,  an  artificial  island,  like  the  Isoletta 
in  the  Lake  of  Varese.  We  have  previously  stated  that  this 
island  has  never  ceased  to  be  inhabited,  and  that  a  chateau  now 
exists  on  it. 

The  movement  spread  from  one  place  to  another.  Austria 
made  it  a  point  of  honour  not  to  remain  in  the  rear  of  Bavaria, 
and  Professor  Hochstetter  was  commissioned  by  the  Academy  of 
Sciences  at  Vienna  to  undertake  a  search  for  palafittes  in  the 
lakes  of  Carinthia  and  Carniola. 

These  explorations  were  not  without  result.  In  four  lakes  of 
Carinthia,  Dr.  Hochstetter  discovered  piles,  remains  of  pottery, 
bones,  nuts,  &c.  In  the  lake  of  Reutschach,  which  was  the  most 
closely  investigated,  he  discovered  shallows  formed  by  stones, 
similar  to  the  Steinbergs  of  Switzerland.  The  marshes  of  Lay- 
bach  have  also  furnished  instruments  of  stag's  horn,  a  perforated 
stone,  and  a  canoe. 

Next  to  Austria,  Prussia  took  the  matter  up.  Specimens  of 
pile-work  were  discovered  in  several  provinces  of  this  kingdom  ; 
among  these  were  Brandenburg  and  Pomerania,  a  district  rich  in 
marshes.  In  the  environs  of  Lubtow  the  lacustrine  constructions 
have  the  same  characteristics  as  those  of  Robenhausen,on  the  Lake 
of  Pfaefnkon  (Switzerland).  Two  distinct  archaeological  strata  may 
be  distinguished ;  in  the  lower  are  found,  all  mingled  together, 
bronze  and  stone  instruments,  fragments  of  pottery,  wheat,  barley, 
and  charred  peas  ;  the  upper  stratum  belongs  to  the  Iron  Age. 

We  have  not  as  yet  said  anything  about  France ;  lacustrine 
dwellings  have,  however,  been  discovered  in  some  of  the  depart- 
ments which  border  on  Switzerland. 

The  lakes  of  Bourget  and  Annecy,  in  Savoy,  contain  several  of 
them.  The  former  of  these  lakes  was  thoroughly  explored  by  M. 
Laurent  Rabut,  author  of  an  article  on  the  "  Habitations  Lacustres 
de  la  Savoie,"  which  obtained  a  silver  medal  at  the  competition  of 
the  learned  societies  in  1863.  In  the  Lake  of  Bourget,  M.  Rabut 
ascertained  the  existence  of  five  or  six  settlements  of  the  bronze 
epoch,  three  of  which,  those  of  Tresserve,  Gresine,  and  Chatillon, 
have  been  distinguished  as  furnishing  numerous  ancient  relics. 


230 


THE  AGE   OF  METALS. 


The  Lake  of  Paladru  (Isere)  which  has  been  searched  by  M. 
Gustave  Vallier,  has  afforded  similar  results.  Pile-works  are 
thought  to  exist  in  some  other  small  lakes  in  the  same  district 
—those  of  Sainte-Helene,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Isere,  Saint- 
Martin-de-Belville,  and  Saint-Marcel,  near  Moutiers.  Pile-works 
have  also  been  discovered  on  the  site  of  an  ancient  lake  on  the 
banks  of  the  Saone  ;  and  in  a  totally  different  district,  at  the  foot 
of  the  Pyrenees,  as  many  as  five  have  been  pointed  out. 

Everything  therefore  leads  us  to  believe  that  if  we  searched 
with  care  the  peat-mosses  and  pools  which  are  very  common  in  a 
good  many  of  the  French  departments,  we  should  discover  the 
vestiges  of  various  pre-historic  epochs. 

In  order  to  complete  the  enumeration  of  the  lacustrine  con- 
structions of  Europe,  we  may  state  that  they  have  been  found  in 
Denmark  in  the  Lake  of  Maribo,  and  in  England  in  the  county 
of  Norfolk. 


Fig.  150. — Vertical  Section  of  a  Crannoge  in  the  Arclakillin  Lake. 

With  these  constructions  we  must  also  connect  the  crannoges 
or  artificial  islands  of  Ireland,  the  first  of  which  was  discovered 
in  1 836.  by  Sir  W.  R.  Wilde,  a  member  of  the  Royal  Academy 
of  Dublin.  Since  this  date  various  investigations  have  been 
made  of  these  objects,  and,  at  the  present  time,  no  less  than 
fifty  crannoges  have  been  discovered,  distributed  among  the 
various  counties  of  Ireland. 

Most  of  these  islets  were  composed  of  heaps  of  stones  held 
together  by  piles,  nearly  in  the  same  way  as  in  the  tennevieres  in 
Switzerland  ;  but  the  crannoges  differ  from  the  latter  in  being 
raised  above  the  water.  Some  of  them,  however,  are  formed  by 
a  collection  of  vertical  piles  and  horizontal  joists,  constituting 
an  external  inclosure,  and  even  internal  compartments,  inside 
which  all  kinds  of  remains  were  collected.  This  kind  are  called 


THE  BRONZE  EPOCH.  231 

stockaded  islands.  They  are  generally  of  an  oval  or  circular  shape, 
and  their  dimensions  are  always  kept  within  rather  narrow  limits. 
In  his  work  on  "  Pre-historic  Times,"  Sir  John  Lubbock  gives 
the  foregoing  sketch  of  &  crannoge  in  the  Ardakillin  Lake. 

Captain  Mudge,  of  the  Royal  British  Navy,  has  described  a 
hut  which  he  found  at  a  depth  of  16  feet,  in  the  Drumkellin 
marsh.  Its  area  was  about  5  feet  square,  and  its  height  10  feet ; 
it  included  two  stories,  each  about  4^  feet  high.  The  roof  was 
flat,  and  the  hut  was  surrounded  by  a  fence  of  piles,  doubtless  in- 
tended to  separate  it  from  other  adjacent  huts,  the  remains  of 
which  are  still  to  be  perceived.  The  whole  construction  had 
been  executed  by  means  of  stone  instruments,  a  fact  that  was 
proved  by  the  nature  of  the  cuts  that  were  still  visible  on  some 
of  the  pieces  of  wood.  Added  to  this,  a  hatchet,  a  chisel,  and  an 
arrow-head,  all  made  of  flint,  were  found  on  the  floor  of  the 
cabin,  and  left  no  doubt  whatever  on  this  point.  This,  therefore, 
was  in  fact  a  habitation  belonging  to  the  Stone  Age.  Some  nuts 
and  a  large  quantity  of  broken  shells  were  scattered  over  the 
ground.  A  large  flat  stone,  perforated  with  a  little  hole  in  the 
middle,  was  found  on  the  spot ;  it  was  probably  used  to  break 
the  nuts  by  means  of  round  pebbles  picked  up  outside. 

From  some  of  these  settlements  considerable  masses  of  bones 
have  been  obtained,  which  have,  alas,  been  utilised  as  manure. 
Sir  John  Lubbock  tells  us  that  the  crannoge  of  Dunshaughlin 
alone  has  furnished  more  than  150  cartloads  of  bones.  These  bones 
belong  to  the  following  species  : — the  ox,  the  pig,  the  goat,  the 
sheep,  the  horse,  the  ass,  the  dog,  the  fox,  the  roe,  the  fallow-deer, 
and  the  great  Irish  stag,  now  extinct.  If  all  other  proof  were 
wanting,  the  presence  of  the  remains  of  this  latter  animal  would 
be  sufficient  to  indicate  that  certain  crannoges  date  back  to  the 
Stone  Age  ;  but  as  in  this  case  we  evidently  have  to  do  with  the 
polished-stone  epoch,  it  is  also  proved  that  the  gigantic  antlered 
stag  existed  in  Ireland  at  a  much  later  date  than  on  the  continent. 

Various  historical  records  testify  to  the  fact,  that  the  crannoges 
were  inhabited  up  to  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century.  They  then 
constituted  a  kind  of  fortress,  in  which  petty  chiefs  braved  for  a 
long  time  the  royal  power.  After  the  definitive  pacification  of 
the  country  they  were  completely  abandoned. 


232  THE  AGE   OF  METALS. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

Palustrine    Habitations   or  Marsh-Villages" —  Surveys   made  by  MM.  Strobel  and 
Pigorini  of  the  Terramares  of  Tuscany — The  Terramares  of  Brazil. 

HAVING  described  the  lacustrine  habitations  which  have  been  dis- 
covered in  various  parts  of  Europe,  we  must  now  mention  the  so- 
czllzd  palustrine  habitations,  as  peculiar  to  the  bronze  epoch.  This 
name  has  been  given  to  that  kind  of  village,  the  remains  of  which 
have  been  discovered  round  marshes  and  pools.  Upper  Italy  is 
the  locality  in  which  these  settlements  have  been  pointed  out. 

The  name  of  palustrine  settlements,  or  marnieras,  has  been 
given  to  the  sites  of  ancient  villages  established  by  means  of  piles 
on  marshes  or  pools  of  no  great  size,  which  in  the  course  of  time 
have  been  filled  up  by  mould  of  a  peaty  character,  containing  a 
quantity  of  organic  and  other  detritus. 

The  discovery  of  those  palustrine  settlements  is  due  to  MM. 
Strobel  and  Pigorini,  who  have  designated  them  by  the  name  of 
terramares. 

This  term  is  applied  by  these  savants  to  the  accumulation  of 
ashes,  charcoal,  animal  bones,  and  remains  of  all  kinds  which 
have  been  thrown  away  by  man  all  round  his  dwellings,  and 
have  accumulated  there  during  the  lapse  of  centuries.  The  name 
which  has  been  given  them  was  derived  from  the  fact  that  they 
furnish  a  kind  of  earthy  ammoniacal  manure,  known  in  the  dis- 
trict by  the  name  of  terramare. 

These  accumulations  are  the  representatives  of  the  Danish 
kitchen-middens  ;  but  with  this  difference,  that  instead  of  dating 
back  to  the  Stone  Age,  the  former  belong  to  the  bronze  epoch. 

Terramares  are  numerous  in  the  districts  of  Parma  and  Modena ; 
they  are,  however,  almost  entirely  confined  to  the  plain  which  ex- 
tends between  the  Po,  the  Apennines,  the  Adda,  and  the  Reno, 
forming  an  area  of  about  60  miles  long  and  30  miles  wide.  In  a 
general  way,  they  form  small  mounds  which  rise  from  6  to  12 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  plain  ;  as  they  go  down  some  depth  in 


THE  BRONZE  EPOCH. 


233 


the  ground,  their  total  thickness  is  in  some  places  as  much  as 
20  feet     Very  few  are  seen  having  an  area  exceeding  9  acres. 

Excavations  which  have  been  made  in  several  spots  enable  a 
tolerably  exact  account  to  be  given  of  the  mode  of  construction 
adopted  in  these  palustrine  settlements.  The  marniera  of  Castione, 
in  particular,  has  furnished  us  with  valuable  information  on  this 
point ;  and  we  shall  describe  this  settlement  as  a  type  of  the  rest. 
Piles  from  6  to  10  feet  in  length,  and  4  to  6  inches  in  diameter 
(Fig.  151),  formed  of  trunks  of  trees,  either  whole  or  split,  and 
pointed  at  the  ends  by  some  rough  tool,  were  sunk  to  the  depth 
of  some  inches  in  the  bed  of  the  hollow.  Some  of  them  still  show 
on  their  tops  the  marks  of  the  blows  that  they  received  when  they 


Fig.  151. — Vertical  Section  of  the  Marniera  of  Castione. 

were  driven  in.  They  were  placed  at  intervals  of  from  18  inches 
to  6  feet;  and  connecting  beams  from  6  to  10  feet  in  length,  placed 
horizontally,  and  crossing  one  another,  bound  the  piles  together, 
and  insured  the  solidity  of  the  whole  construction.  On  these 
cross-beams  rested  a  floor  (Fig.  152)  formed  of  joists  I  to  3  inches 
thick,  6  to  12  inches  wide,  and  5  to  7  feet  long. 

Fig-  153  gives  the  plan  of  the  tie-beams  and  piles  of  the  mar- 
niera of  Castione,  taken  from  the  author's  work.*  These  slabs 
or  joists  were  not  fixed  in  any  way  ;  at  least,  no  trace  now  exists 
of  any  fastening.  They  seem  to  have  been  provided  by  splitting 
trunks  of  trees  by  means  of  wooden  wedges,  a  number  of  these 

*  "  Les  Terramares  et  les  Pilotages  du  Parmesan  ;  "  Milan,  1864.     (Extract  from 
the  "  Atti  della  Societa  Italiana  di  Scienze  natural!.") 


234 


THE  AGE   OF  METALS. 


wedges  having  been  found  in  the  peaty  earth.  Neither  the  saw 
nor  the  gimlet  appear  to  have  been  employed  ;  but  the  square 
holes  have  been  cut  out  by  means  of  the  chisel.  The  timber 
that  was  used  was  principally  ash  and  oak. 


Fig.  152. — Floor  of  the  Marniera  of  Castione. 

The  floor  was  covered  with  beaten  earth  to  a  thickness  of  10 
to  12  inches.  Fragments  of  this  kind  of  paving  were  found  scat- 
tered about  in  two  sandy  heaps,  almost  entirely  devoid  of  other 
debris,  whilst  the  adjacent  earth,  of  a  blackish  colour,  contained  a 


•  '© ££>< 


© © Q G 

Fig.  153.— Plan  of  the  Piles  and  Cross-beams  in  the  Maniiera  of  Castione. 

large  quantity  of  relics  of  all  kinds.  It  is  probable  that  the  huts  of 
the  inhabitants  of  the  marniera  were  situated  upon  these  sandy 
heaps,  and  that  the  dark-coloured  earth  is  the  final  result  of  the 
accumulation  of  refuse  and  various  kinds  of  detritiisvvL  thesamespot. 


THE  BRONZE  EPOCH.  235 

It  is  not  known  whether  the  layer  of  beaten  earth  extended  over 
the  whole  surface  of  the  floor,  or  was  confined  to  the  interior  of 
the  habitations.  In  the  former  case,  it  is  probable  that  it  was 
rammed  down  with  less  care  on  the  outside  than  on  the  inside  of 
the  huts,  as  is  shown  by  the  discovery  of  a  storehouse  for  corn, 
the  floor  of  which  is  formed  by  nothing  but  a  layer  of  sandy 
earth  placed  upon  the  planks.  This  storehouse,  which,  from  the 
use  to  which  it  was  put,  could  not  have  been  used  as  a  dwelling 
by  any  one,  measured  13  feet  in  length  and  10  feet  in  width.  It 
contained  carbonised  beans  and  wheat,  spread  in  a  layer  of 
about  4  inches  thick. 

MM.  Strobel  and  Pigorini  found  no  remains  of  huts  in  the 
marniera  of  Castione ;  probably  because,  having  been  built 
entirely  of  wood,  they  were  completely  destroyed  by  fire,  nu- 
merous traces  of  which  may  still  be  detected.  In  addition  to  the 
carbonised  corn  and  fruit  already  mentioned,  many  other  objects 
bearing  the  evident  marks  of  fire,  were,  in  fact,  collected  at 
Castione.  The  floor-slabs,  the  tie-beams,  and  the  tops  of  the 
piles,  were  often  found  to  be  half-consumed. 

But  although  at  Castione  there  is  no  evidence  forthcoming  in 
respect  to  huts,  information  which  bears  upon  this  point  has  been 
obtained  at  other  spots.  MM.  Strobel  and  Pigorini  have  ascer- 
tained that  the  palustrine  dwellings  bore  a  great  similarity  to 
those  on  the  Swiss  lakes.  The  sides  were  lined  with  boughs,  and 
the  interior  was  daubed  with  clay.  In  Italy,  just  as  in  Switzer- 
land, certain  fragments  of  the  clayey  coating  which  have  been 
hardened  and  preserved  by  the  fire,  have  enabled  us  to  draw 
these  inferences. 

At  Castione  several  beds  of  ashes  and  charcoal  containing  re- 
mains of  meals,  pointed  out  the  sites  of  the  domestic  hearths, 
round  which  they,  doubtless,  assembled  to  eat  their  food.  Another 
bed  of  charcoal  mixed  with  straw,  wheat,  and  pieces  of  burnt 
pottery,  was  found  in  a  peculiar  situation — it  was  embedded  in  a 
bank  of  calcareous  pebbles  vitrified  on  the  surface ;  this  bank 
was  about  5  feet  wide,  and  about  8  inches  in  thickness.  The 
explorers  thought  that  it  was,  perhaps,  a  place  which  had  been 
devoted  to  the  fusion  of  metals. 

On  the  edge  of  the  basin  of  the  marsh,  a  kind  of  rampart  or 


236  THE  AGE   OF  METALS. 

defensive  work  was  discovered,  composed  of  slabs  as  much  as 
1 6  feet  in  length,  laid  horizontally  one  over  the  other.  These  slabs 
were  tied  down  by  stakes  driven  in  obliquely/and  likewise  placed 
one  above  the  other,  their  ends  being  inserted  between  the  slabs. 

This  last  discovery,  added  to  other  indications,  led  MM.  Strobel 
and  Pigorini  to  the  supposition  that  the  pile-work  of  Castione, 
and  doubtless  also  those  in  all  the  marnieras,  were  in  the  first  place 
constructed  as  places  of  defence,  and  were  subsequently  converted 
into  fixed  and  permanent  residences.  The  basin  of  the  marsh 
having  been  gradually  filled  up  by  the  accumulations  of  debris 
resulting  from  the  presence  of  man,  the  habitations  were  built  on  a 
solid  foundation,  and  a  great  portion  of  the  former  floor  was  done 
away  with,  which  would  account  for  so  little  of  it  now  remaining. 

The  objects  discovered  in  the  terramares  and  marnieras  do  not 
essentially  differ  from  those  found  in  the  pile-works  of  Switzerland. 
They  are  almost  all  worn  or  broken,  just  as  might  be  expected 
from  finding  them  in  rubbish  heaps.  There  are  a  great  quantity 
of  fragments  of  pottery  of  a  greyish  or  dark-coloured  clay  mixed 
with  grains  of  quartz,  imperfectly  baked,  and  made  without  the 
aid  of  a  potter's  wheel.  The  ornamentation  is,  in  general,  of  a 
very  simple  character,  but  the  shapes  of  the  ears,  or  handles,  are 
very  varied.  Some  of  the  vessels  are  furnished  with  a  spout  or 
holes  for  the  liquid  to  flow  out.  The  terramares  also  contain 
supports  for  vessels  with  round  or  pointed  bottoms. 

In  the  marniera  of  San  Ambrogio  a  slab  of  pottery  was  found, 
elliptical  in  shape,  and  about  half  an  inch  in  thickness,  concave 
on  one  side  and  convex  on  the  other,  and  pierced  with  seventeen 
circular  holes  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  The  idea 
was  entertained  that  this  object  was  used  as  a  kind  of  fire-grating, 
for  it  bore  traces  of  the  long-continned  action  of  fire. 

The  other  objects  most  commonly  found  were  weights  made  of, 
baked  earth,  and  perhaps  used  for  the  weaving  loom,  much  worn 
in  the  place  where  the  cord  passed  through  on  which  they  were 
hung  ;  fusaiolas,  or  spindle-whorls,  very  varied  both  in  shape 
and  size,  likewise  made  of  baked  earth  ;  large  mill-stones  with  a 
polished  surface.  Next  we  have  poniards  or  spear-heads,  hatchets, 
and  hair-pins,  all  made  of  bronze.  The  marniera  of  San  Am- 
brogio has  furnished  a  mould  indicating  that  bronze  was  melted 
and  cast  in  this  district. 


THE  BRONZE  EPOCH.  237 

An  attentive  study  of  the  bones  of  animals  contained  in  the 
terramares  has  led  to  the  following  information  being  obtained 
as  to  the /#?/;/#  of  Upper  Italy  during  the  bronze  epoch. 

With  respect  to  the  mammals  which  lived  in  a  wild  state,  the 
existence  has  been  ascertained  of  a  species  of  stag  of  much  greater 
size  than  the  present  variety,  and  about  equal  to  that  of  the 
lacustrine  settlements  of  Switzerland  (Fig.  154) ;  also  of  a  wild- 
boar  much  more  powerful  than  that  of  Sardinia  or  even  of 
Algeria,  the  roe,  the  bear,  the  rat,  and  the  porcupine.  In  different 
spots  have  been  found  stags'  horns  and  bones,  and  also  sloe- 
stones  which  have  retained  the  impression  of  the  teeth  of  some 
small  rodent.  The  bear,  the  wild-boar,  the  stag,  and  the  roe, 
have,  at  the  present  day,  disappeared  from  the  country.  The 
porcupine,  too,  has  migrated  into  regions  further  south,  which  leads 
to  the  supposition  that  the  temperature  of  the  provinces  of  Parma 
and  Modena  is  a  little  lowered  since  the  date  of  the  bronze  epoch. 

It  is  to  be  remarked  that  in  these  settlements,  contrary  to  what 
has  been  noticed  in  Switzerland,  in  the  lacustrine  habitations  be- 
longing to  the  Stone  Age,  the  remains  of  wild  animals  are  met 
with  much  more  rarely  than  those  of  domestic  animals ;  this  must 
be  consequent  on  a  superior  and  more  advanced  stage  of  civilisa- 
tion having  existed  in  Italy.  Among  the  domestic  species  found 
we  may  mention  the  dog,  two  breeds  of  which,  of  different  sizes, 
must  have  existed  ;  the  pig  of  the  peat-bogs,  the  same  variety  as 
that  of  which  the  bones  were  discovered  in  Switzerland ;  the 
horse,  the  remains  of  which,  although  rare,  testify  to  the  existence 
of  two  breeds,  one  large  and  bulky,  the  other  of  slighter  and 
more  elegant  proportions ;  the  ass,  of  which  there  are  but  few 
bones,  could  not,  therefore,  have  been  very  common  ;  the  ox,  the 
remains  of  which  are  on  the  contrary  very  abundant,  like  the 
dog  and  the  horse,  is  represented  by  two  distinct  breeds,  the 
more  powerful  of  which  appears  to  have  descended  from  the 
Bos  primigenius  or  Urns ;  lastly,  the  sheep  and  the  goat,  the 
remains  of  which  can  scarcely  be  clearly  distinguished,  on 
account  of  their  great  anatomical  resemblance. 

When  we  compare  the  present  fauna  with  that  of  which  we 
have  just  given  the  details,  we  may  perceive  several  important 
modifications.  Thus  the  pig  of  the  peat-bogs,  one  breed  of  oxen, 
and  a  breed  of  sheep  (the  smallest)  have  become  entirely  extinct; 


238  THE  AGE   OF  METALS. 

and  the  common  sheep,  the  goat,  the  horse,  and  the  ass  have 
assumed  much  more  important  dimensions.  With  regard  to  the 
wild  species  of  mammals,  we  have  already  said  that  some  have 
become  less  in  size,  and  others  have  disappeared.  Hence  results 
one  proof  of  a  fact  which  is  beyond  dispute,  although  often  called 
in  question,  namely,  that  the  intelligent  action  of  man  working 
by  means  of  domestication  on  wild  natures,  will  ultimately 
succeed  in  ameliorating,  reclaiming,  and  perfecting  them. 

The  skulls  and  the  long  bones  found  in  the  terramares  are 
almost  always  broken  for  the  purpose  of  extracting  the  brain  and 
the  marrow,  a  very  ancient  usage  which  had  endured  to  this  com- 
paratively late  epoch.  But  instead  of  being  split  longitudinally, 
as  was  the  case  in  preceding  epochs,  they  are  generally  broken 
across  at  one  end.  The  terramares  and  the  kitchen-middens  have 
this  peculiarity  in  common — that  all  the  dogs'  skulls  found  in 
them  have  been  intentionally  broken  ;  a  fact  which  proves  that 
in  Italy,  as  in  Denmark,  this  faithful  guest  or  servant  of  man 
was  occasionally,  in  default  of  some  better  food,  and  doubtless 
with  much  regret,  used  as  an  article  of  subsistence. 

No  remains  of  fish  have  been  found  in  these  marnieras ;  from 
this,  MM.  Strobel  and  Pigorini  have  justly  concluded  that  the 
inhabitants  of  these  pile-works  were  not  fishermen,  and  that,  at 
all  events,  the  water  which  surrounded  them  was  shallow  and  of 
limited  extent. 

The  species  of  birds,  molluscs,  and  insects,  the  remains  of  which 
have  been  found  in  the  terramares,  are  likewise  determined.  The 
existence  of  the  domestic  fowl  and  the  duck,  no  doubt  living  in 
complete  liberty,  has  been  duly  recognised;  but  it  is  thought 
that  the  appearance  of  these  species  must  not  be  dated  further 
back  than  the  end  of  the  bronze  epoch,  and  perhaps  even  the 
beginning  of  that  of  iron. 

The  examination  of  the  insect  remains  has  enabled  us  to  ascer- 
tain that  the  refuse  food  and  rubbish  must  have  lain  for  some 
little  time  in  front  of  the  doors  of  the  habitations  before  it  was 
pushed  into  the  water ;  for  in  it,  flies,  and  other  insects  of  the 
kind,  found  time  to  be  born,  to  mature,  and  to  undergo  their 
whole  series  of  metamorphoses  ;  a  fact  which  is  proved  by  the 
perforated  and  empty  envelopes  of  their  chrysalides. 

We  mention  this  last  fact  as  one  of  the  most  curious  instances 


THE  BRONZE  EPOCH.  239 

of  the  results  which  science  and  inference  may,  in  combination, 
arrive  at  when  devoted  to  the  novel  and  interesting  study  of  some 
of  the  earlier  stages  in  man's  existence.  But,  on  the  other  hand, 
it  gives  us  but  a  poor  idea  of  the  cleanliness  of  the  Italian  race 
during  the  bronze  epoch.  It  would  seem  to  us  that  a  feeling  of 
the  dignity  inherent  in  the  body  of  man,  and  the  cares  that  it  so 
imperiously  claims,  would  have  been  now  more  strongly  developed 
than  at  a  period  when  men  dwelt  confined  in  caves.  This,  how- 
ever, is  not  the  case.  But  have  we,  in  the  present  day,  any  right 
to  be  astonished,  when  we  see,  even  now,  the  prevalence,  in  some 
of  the  great  cities  of  America,  of  certain  practices  so  disgusting  in 
character  and  so  opposed  to  the  public  health  ?  Osculati,  an 
Italian  traveller,  relates  that  at  all  the  street  corners  in  the  city 
of  Guayaquil,  in  the  republic  of  Ecuador,  heaps  of  filth  are  to  be 
seen  which  exhale  an  insupportable  odour.  Similar  heaps  exist 
at  the  very  gates  of  Mexico,  where,  at  the  present  time,  they  form 
small  hills.  These  facts  ought  to  render  us  indulgent  towards  the 
neglect  of  cleanliness  by  our  ancestors  during  the  bronze  epoch. 

Such  were  the  animal  remains  collected  in  the  terramares. 
The  vegetable  remains  consisted  of  grains  of  carbonised  corn, 
broken  nuts,  acorns,  halves  of  burnt  apples,  stones  of  the  dog- 
berry,  plums  and  grapes. 

In  concluding  our  consideration  of  the  palustrine  settlements, 
we  may  add,  that  some  have  recently  been  discovered  in  Moravia 
and  Mecklenburg.  At  Olmutz,  a  city  of  Moravia,  M.  Jeitteler,  a 
learned  Viennese,  has  found  piles  sunk  into  the  peat,  along  with 
various  bronze  and  stone  objects,  ornamented  pottery,  charcoal, 
charred  wheat,  numerous  animal  bones,  and  a  human  skeleton  of 
a  brachycephalous  race.  All  the  facts  lead  to  the  belief  that  this 
will  not  be  the  last  discovery  of  the  kind. 

We  must  also  state  that  the  terramares,  or  deposits  of  the  re- 
mains of  habitations  on  the  edge  of  marshes,  are  not  peculiar  to 
Europe  exclusively.  On  the  coast  of  Africa  (at  San  Vicente)  M. 
Strobel  found  remains  of  an  exactly  similar  nature ;  and  Dr. 
Henrique  Naegeli,  a  distinguished  naturalist  of  Rio  Janeiro,  has 
testified  to  the  existence  on  the  coast  of  Brazil  of  like  deposits, 
which  he  proposes  to  subject  to  a  thorough  examination.* 

*  "Materiaux  pour  1'histoire  positive  et  philosophique  de  1'Homme,"  by  G.  de 
Mortillet.  Paris,  1865  ;  vol.  i.  p.  397. 


240  THE  AGE   OF  METALS. 


CHAPTER  V. 

Weapons,  Instruments,  and  Utensils  contained  in  the  various  Lacustrine  Settlements 
in  Europe,  enabling  us  to  become  acquainted  with  the  Manners  and  Customs  of 
Man  during  the  Bronze  Epoch. 

WE  have  just  spoken  of  the  discovery  and  investigation  of  the 
lacustrine  habitations  found  in  various  parts  of  Europe,  and  also 
of  the  palustrine  villages  of  Northern  Italy.  These  rich  deposits 
have  thrown  a  considerable  light  on  the  primitive  history  of  the 
human  race.  With  the  elements  that  have  been  thus  placed  at 
our  disposal,  it  will  be  possible  to  reconstruct  the  domestic  life 
of  the  tribes  of  the  bronze  epoch,  that  is,  to  describe  the  weapons, 
instruments,  and  utensils  which  were  proper  to  the  every-day 
proceedings  of  this  period. 

In  order  to  give  perspicuity  to  our  representation  or  account, 
we  have  classed  the  lacustrinenabitations  under  the  head  of  the 
bronze  epoch.  But  we  must  by  no  means  forget  that  these 
lacustrine  villages  contained  other  objects  besides  those  belonging 
to  the  bronze  epoch  ;  there  were  also  found  in  them  a  number  of 
articles  which  must  be  referred  to  the  preceding  period,  that  is, 
the  polished-stone  epoch. 

It  is  a  question  indifferent  to  our  purpose,  whether  the  lacustrine 
villages  were  constructed  during  the  Stone  Age,  as  inferred  from 
the  presence  in  some  settlements  6f  stone  objects  only,  or  whether 
the  habitations  were  built  during  the  bronze  epoch,  some  of  the 
articles  made  of  stone  and  dating  back  to  the  preceding  period 
being  still  preserved  in  use.  For  it  is  certain  that  the  larger  num- 
ber of  lacustrine  settlements  do  not  go  back  beyond  the  bronze 
epoch.  But  as  certain  objects  made  of  stone  form  a  portion  of  the 
implements  found  in  these  ancient  habitations,  we  must  commence 
by  describing  these  relics  of  the  Stone  Age  ;  although  we  shall 
considerably  abridge  this  description,  so  as  to  avoid  repeating  those 
details  which  we  have  already  given  in  the  preceding  chapters. 

The  stone  weapons  and  instruments  are  found  to  consist,  in 


THE  BRONZE  EPOCH. 


241 


Switzerland  as  elsewhere,  of  hatchets,  spear-heads,  and  arrow- 
heads, hammers,  saws,  knives,  and  chisels. 

The  hatchets  and  hammers  are  made  of  various  materials,  as 
flint,  quartzite,  diorite,  nephrite,  jade,  serpentine,  &c.  But  the 
other  weapons  and  implements  are,  nearly  all  of  them,  of  flint. 

The  hatchet  was  in  continual  use,  not  merely  as  a  weapon  but 
as  a  tool ;  thus,  very  numerous  specimens  of  it  are  found  in  the 
Swiss  lakes. 

The  hatchets,  however,  are,  generally  speaking,  small  in  size. 
Their  length  varies  from  2  to  8  inches,  and  their  width,  at  the 
cutting  edge,  from  I  ^  to  2  inches.  Fig.  155  represents  one  of  the 


Fig.  155. — Stone  Hatchet  from 
the  Lacustrine  Habitations  of 
Switzerland. 


Fig.  156. — Stone  Chisel  with  Stag's- 
horn  Handle  from  the  Lacustrine 
Habitations  of  Switzerland. 


flint  hatchets.  They  are  the  same  shape  as  the  Danish  hatchets 
during  the  polished-stone  epoch. 

The  most  simple  plan  of  fixing  a  handle  to  the  small-sized 
hatchets,  which  were  in  fact  chisels,  consisted  in  inserting  them 
into  a  piece  of  stag's  horn,  hollowed  out  for  this  purpose  at  one 
end.  In  this  way  they  obtained  a  kind  of  chisel  which  was  very 
ready  of  use.  Fig.  156  represents  this  kind  of  handle. 

There  was  also  another  mode  of  fixing  handles  to  these  instru- 
ments. The  shaped  flint  was  previously  fixed  in  a  holder  of 
stag's  horn.  This  holder  was  itself  perforated  through  the  middle 
with  a  round  hole,  in  order  to  receive  a  wooden  handle.  It  then 
became  a  complete  hatchet. 


242  THE  AGE  OF  METALS. 

Fig.  157  represents  one  of  these  hatchets  fitted  with  a  handle 
in  a  way  similar  to  many  of  the  specimens  in  the  Museum  of 
Saint-Germain. 

This  mode  of  insertion  into  a  handle  is  frequently  met  with 


Fig.  157. — Flint  Hammer,  fitted  with  a  Stag's-horn  Handle. 

during  the  polished-stone  epoch,  as  we  have  already  stated  upon 
the  authority  of  Boucher  de  Perthes  (see  Fig.  112). 

There  was  also  another  way  of  adapting  for  use  the  stone  chisels 
and  hammers.  The  following  is  the  mode  employed.  The  flint 
was  inserted  into  a  short  holder  of  stag's  horn,  hollowed  out  at 
one  end  for  this  purpose,  the  other  end  of  the  piece  of  horn  being 
cut  square.  This  squared  end,  which  was  thinner  than  the  rest  of 


Fig.  158.— Stone  Hatchet,  with  double  Handle  of  Wood  and  Stag's  Horn. 

the  holder,  was  fitted  into  a  wooden  handle,  which  had  been  per- 
forated with  a  hole  of  the  same  shape  and  size. 

M.  Desor,  in  his  "  Memoire  sur  les  Palafittes,"  supplies  the 
following  sketch  (Fig.  1 5  8),  as  representing  these  double-handled 
hatchets. 


THE  BRONZE  EPOCH. 


243 


It  is  very  seldom  that  hatchets  of  this  type  are  met  with  in  a 
complete  state  in  the  lacustrine  habitations  of  Switzerland  ;  the 
handles  have  generally  disappeared.  In  other  localities,  where  the 
hatchets  are  very  plentiful,  very  few  holders  are  found.  Is  it  not 
the  case  that  in  these  spots  the  stone  was  the  special  object  of 
work  and  not  the  handles?  There  were,  in  fact,  in  Switzerland,  as 
in  France  and  Belgium,  workshops  devoted  to  the  manufacture  of 
these  articles.  The  large  number  of  hatchets,  either  just  commenced 
or  defective  in  workmanship,  which  have  been  found  in  some  of 
the  principal  lacustrine  settlements  leave  no  doubt  on  this  point. 

The  finest  and  most  carefully-wrought  instruments  are  the 
hammers  and  double  or  hatchet-hammers.  Most  of  them  are  made 
of  serpentine.  One  of  the  ends  is  generally  rounded  or  flattened, 
whilst  the  other  tapers  off  either  into  a  point  or  a  cutting  edge, 
as  represented  in  Fig.  159-160,  taken  from  M.  Desor's  work. 


Fig.  159-160. — Serpentine  Hatchet-hammers,  from  the 
Lacustrine  Habitations  of  Switzerland. 


Fig.  161.  —  Another  Hatchet-hammer, 
from  the  Lacustrine  Habitations  of 
Switzerland. 


They  are  perforated  with  a  round  hole  intended  to  receive  a 
handle  of  wood.  This  hole  is  so  sharply  and  regularly  cut  out,  that 
it  is  difficult  to  believe  it  could  have  been  made  with  nothing 
—better  than  a  flint  tool.  Metal  alone  would  appear  to  be  capable 
of  effecting  such  finished  work.  This  is  one  of  the  facts  which 
tend  to  the  idea  that  the  lacustrine  settlements,  which  have  been 
ascribed  to  the  Stone  Age,  belong  rather  to  the  bronze  epoch. 


244  THE  AGE   OF  METALS. 

Fig.  1 6 1  represents  another  hatchet-hammer  obtained  from  the 
Swiss  lakes. 

The  knives  and  saws  have  nothing  remarkable  about  them. 
They  are  mere  flakes  of  flint,  long  and  narrow  in  shape,  the 


Fig.  162. — Flint  Saw  fitted  into  a  piece  of  Stag's  Horn. 

cutting-edge  or  teeth  being  on  the  widest  side.  There  are  some 
which  are  fitted  into  handles  of  stag's  horn,  as  represented  in 
Fig.  162,  taken  from  M.  Desor's  work. 

They  must  have  been  fastened  into  the  handles  by  means  of 


Fig.    163. — Flint  Spear-head  Fig.  164. — Various  shapes  of  Flint  Arrow-heads, 

from  the  Lacustrine  settle-  from  the   Lacustrine  settlements  of   Switzer- 

ments  of  Switzerland.  land. 

bitumen,  for  traces  of  this  substance  have  been  found  on  some  of 
the  handles.  The  same  plan  was  adopted  in  order  to  fix  the 
hatchets  in  their  holders. 


THE  BRONZE  EPOCH. 


245 


The  spear-heads  (Fig.  163)  are  very  skilfully  fashioned ;  their 
shape  is  regular,  and  the  chiselling  very  perfect,  although  inferior 
to  that  observed  in  Denmark.  They  are  made  level  on  one  side, 
and  with  a  longitudinal  middle  ridge  on  the  other. 

The  arrow-heads  are  very  varied  in  shape  (Fig.  164).     In  de 
licacy  of  workmanship  they  are  in  no  way  inferior  to  the  spear  or 
javelin-heads.     The  cutting  of  these  small  objects  must  have  re- 
quired much  labour  and  skill.     Some  are  toothed  on  the  edges, 


Fig.  165.—  Arrow-head  of  Bone 
fixed  on  the  shaft  by  means 
of  Bitumen. 


Fig.  166.—  Stone  Arrow-head 
fixed  on  the  Shaft  by  means 
of  Bitumen. 


Fig.  167.—  Arrow-head  fixed 
on  the  Shaft  by  a  Ligature 
of  String. 


which  must  have  rendered  the  wounds  inflicted  by  them  much 
more  dangerous.  The  greater  part  of  these  arrow-heads  are 
made  of  flint,  but  some  have  been  found  the  material  of  which  is 
bone,  and  even  stag's  horn. 

The  arrow-heads  were  fixed  into  the  shafts  by  means  of  bitu- 
men. This  plan  is  represented  in  Figs.  165  and  166,  which  are 
given  by  M.  Mortillet  in  his  "  Promenades  prehistoriques  a  1'Ex- 
position  Universelle." 


246 


THE  AGE   OF  METALS. 


Sometimes  they  were  merely  attached  to  the  shaft  by  a  liga- 
ture of  string  (Fig.  167). 

A  few  relics  have  been  discovered  of  the  bows  which  were  used 
to  impel  these  arrows.  They  were  made  of  yew,  and  roughly  cut. 

Tools  and  instruments  of  bone  seem,  like  those  made  of  flint, 
to  have  been  much  in  use.  In  addition  to  the  arrow-heads  which 
we  have  just  mentioned,  there  have  also  been  found  piercers,  or 
bodkins,  of  various  shapes  (Figs.  168  and  169),  chisels  for  working 
in  wood  (Fig.  170),  pins  with  lenticular  heads  (Fig.  171),  needles 
perforated  sometimes  with  one  eye  and  sometimes  with  two,  and 
occasionally  hollowed  out  round  the  top  in  a  circular  groove,  so- 
as  to  attach  the  thread. 


Fig.  168.— Bone  Bodkin,  Fig.  169.— Bone  Bodkin,  Fig.  170.— Carpenters' Chisel,  Fig.    171.— Bone 

from  the      Lacustrine      from     the     Lacustrine  from  the  Lacustrine  Habi-      Needle. 

Habitations  of  Switzer-      Habitations  of  Switzer-  tations  of  Switzerland, 
land.                                       land. 

Figs.  1 68,  169,  170,  and  171  are  given  by  M.  Desor  in  his 
"  Memoire  sur  les  Palafittes." 

It  is  probable  that,  as  during  the  reindeer  epoch,  garments 
were  sewn  by  means  of  the  needle  and  the  bodkin,  the-  latter 
piercing  the  holes  through  which  the  needle  passed  the  thread. 

That  kind  of  needle  which  has  a  hole  in  the  middle,  and  is 
pointed  at  the  two  ends,  which  is  found  in  large  numbers  in  the 


THE  BRONZE  EPOCH.  247 

lacustrine  settlements,  must  doubtless  have  been  used  as  a  hook 
for  fishing.  When  the  fish  had  swallowed  the  bait,  the  two  points 
stuck  into  the  flesh,  and  it  was  then  easy  to  pull  out  the  captive. 
Some  of  these  fish-hooks  are  carved  out  of  boar's  tusks. 


Fig.  172. — Pickaxe  of  Stag's  Horn      Fig.  173. — Harpoon  made  of  Stag's      Fig.  174. — Harpoon  made 

Horn,  from  the  Lacustrine  Habi-          of   Stag's    Horn,    from 
tations  of  Switzerland.  the  Lacustrine  Habita- 

tions of  Switzerland. 

Stag's  horn  was  likewise  employed  for  several  other  purposes. 
A  kind  of  pickaxe  was  sometimes  made  of  it  (Fig.  172) ;  also 
harpoons  (Fig.  1/3),  harpoons  with  a  double  row  of  barbs  (Fig. 
174),  and  small  cups  of  conical  shape  (Fig.  175),  perforated  with 


Fig.  175. — Vessel  made  of  Stag's  Horn. 

a  hole  in  the  upper  part  so  that  they  could  be  suspended  if 
required. 

The  taste  for  personal  adornment  was  not  foreign  to  the  nature 


248  THE  AGE  OF  METALS. 

of  the  primitive  people  of  Switzerland.  Canine  teeth  and  incisors 
of  various  animals,  rings  and  beads  made  of  bone  or  stag's  horn,  all 
united  in  a  necklace,  formed  one  of  their  most  u&ual  adornments. 

They  also  made  use  of  hair-pins  and  bone  combs.  These  pins 
were  finished  off  with  a  knob,  and  combined  elegance  and  sim- 
plicity in  their  shape ;  they  would,  indeed,  be  no  disfigurement 
to  the  coiffure  of  the  women  of  modern  times. 

Such  were  the  instruments,  utensils,  and  tools,  used  for  the 
purpose  of  domestic  life,  which  have  been  found  in  the  lacustrine 
habitations  of  Switzerland  belonging  to  the  Stone  Age.  We 
will  now  pass  on  to  the  objects  of  the  same  character,  peculiar  to 
the  bronze  epoch. 

The  quantity  of  bronze  objects  which,  up  to  the  present  time, 
have  been  collected  from  the  Swiss  lakes  is  very  considerable. 
The  finest  collection  in  the  country,  that  of  Colonel  Schwab, 
contained  in  1867,  according  to  a  catalogue  drawn  up  by  Dr. 
Keller,  no  less  than  4346  specimens. 

Most  of  these  objects  have  been  cast  in  moulds,  as  is  evident 
from  the  seams,  the  traces  of  which  may  be  observed  on  several 
of  the  specimens. 

Among  the  most  remarkable  of  the  relics  of  the  bronze  epoch 
which  have  been  recovered  from  the  Swiss  lakes,  the  hatchets  or 
celts  are  well  deserving  of  mention.  They  are  from  4  to  8  inches 
in  length,  and  weigh  from  10  to  15  pounds.  Their  shapes  are 
varied  ;  but  all  possess  the  distinctive  characteristic  of  being 
adapted  to  fit  longitudinally  on  their  handles,  and  not  transversely, 
as  in  the  Stone  Age.  It  is  but  seldom  that  they  are  not  fur- 
nished with  a  hole  or  ear,  so  as  to  furnish  an  additional  means  of 
attachment. 

We  have,  in  the  first  place,  the  hatchet  with  wings  bent  round 
on  each  side  of  the  blade,  so  as  to  constitute  a  kind  of  double 
socket,  intended  to  receive  a  handle  divided  in  the  middle  and 
bent  into  an  elbow.  This  is  the  most  prevalent  type.  Some- 
times, as  may  be  noticed  in  Fig.  176,  the  upper  end  is  pierced 
with  an  eye,  doubtless  intended  to  hold  a  band  for  fixing  firmly 
the  curved  handle.  This  arrangement  is  peculiar  to  the  hatchets 
of  large  size,  that  is,  to  those  which  had  the  most  strain  put  upon 
them. 


THE  BRONZE  EPOCH.  249 

Another  type,  which  is  very  rare  in  Switzerland — only  one 
specimen  of  it  existing  in  the  Museum  of  Neuchatel — is  that 
(Fig.  177)  in  which  the  wings,  instead  of  bending  back  upon  the 
blade  perpendicularly  to  the  plane  of  the  cutting  edge,  turn  back 
in  the  same  plane  with  it,  or  in  the  thickness  of  the  blade. 


Fig.  176.— Bronze  Winged  Hatchet,  from  the  Fig.  177.— Winged  Hatchet  (front  and  side  view) 

Lacustrine  Habitations  of  Switzerland.  from  the  Lacustrine  Habitations  of  Switzerland. 

There  is  also  the  hatchet  with  the  ordinary  socket,  either 
cylindrical  (Fig.  178)  or  angular.  This  shape  is  very  common  in 
France,  where  they  are  known  by  the  name  of  celts. 


Fig.  178.— Socketed  Hatchet  from  the  Lacustrine        Fig.  179.— Knife  Hatchet  (front  and  side  view), 
Habitations.  from  the  Lacustrine  Habitations. 

M.  Morlot  has  given  the  name  of  knife-hatchets  (Fig.  179),  to 
those  instruments,  the  perforated  ears  of  which  are  scarcely,  if  at 
all  developed,  and  could  by  no  means  serve  to  give  firmness  to  a 


250 


THE  AGE  OF  METALS. 


handle.  It  is  probable  that  these  instruments  were  grasped 
directly  by  the  hand,  and  that  the  mere  rudiments  of  wings 
which  may  be  noticed,  were  merely  intended  to  substitute  a 
rounded  surface  for  a  sharp  ridge.  Figures  176,  177,  178,  and 
179  are  taken  from  M.  Desor's  "Me"moire  sur  les  Palafittes." 

Next  to  the  hatchets  we  must  mention  the  chisels  for  wood- 
work (Fig.  1 80),  which  are  cut  out  to  a  great  nicety,  and  in  no  way 
differ  from  our  present  chisels,  except  in  the  mode  of  fitting  to 
the  handle,  which  is  done  by  means  of  a  socket. 


Fig.  180. — Carpenters'  Chisel 
in  Bronze. 


Fig.  181. — Hexagonal 
Hammer. 


Fig.  182. — Knife  with  a'tang 
to  fit  into  a  Handle,  from 
the  Lacustrine  settlements 
of  Switzerland. 

There  has  also  been  discovered  a  kind  of  prismatically  shaped 
hexagonal  hammer  (Fig.  181),  likewise  provided  with  a  socket, 
the  length  of  which  is  about  3  inches.  This  hammer  forms  a 
portion  of  the  collection  of  Colonel  Schwab. 

The  knives  are  the  most  numerous  of  all  the  sharp  instruments. 
The  workmanship  of  them  is,  in  general,  very  skilfully  executed, 


THE  BRONZE  EPOCH. 


251 


and  their  shape  is  very  elegant  Some  of  them  have  a  metallic 
handle  ;  but  the  greater  part  terminate  in  a  kind  of  tang  intended 
to  fit  into  a  handle  of  wood  or  stag's  horn,  as  represented  in  Fig. 
182,  taken  from  M.  Desor's  "  Memoire  sur  les  Palafittes." 

We  also  find  knives  furnished  with  a  socket  (Fig.  183).  The 
blade  measures  from  4  to  8  inches  in  length,  and  is  often  adorned 
with  tracings ;  in  some  instances  the  back  of  the  blade  is  very 
much  thickened. 

Together  with  the  knives  we  must  also  class  the  sickles  or 


Fig.  183.— Socketed  Knife,  from  the  Lacustrine 
settlements  of  Switzerland. 


Fig.  184.— Bronze  Sickle,  found  by  M.  Desor, 
at  Chevroux. 


reaping  hooks.  These  implements  have  been  collected  in  some- 
what large  quantities  in  the  settlements  of  Auvernier  and  Cor- 
taillod  (Lake  of  Neuchatel).  They  are  of  good  workmanship,  and 
frequently  provided  with  ridges  or  ribs  in  the  metal  of  the  blade. 
Fig.  184,  given  by  M.  Desor  in  his  work,  represents  a  sickle  of 
this  kind  which  was  found  by  the  author  at  Chevroux. 

The  largest  of  these  sickles  does  not  exceed  6  inches  in  length. 
They  were  fitted  into  a  wooden  handle. 


252  THE  AGE  OF  METALS. 

We  cannot  of  course  describe  all  the  bronze  objects  which  have 
been  recovered  from  the  Swiss  lakes.  After  having  mentioned 
the  preceding,  we  shall  content  ourselves  with  naming  certain 
saws  of  various  shapes — razors,  actual  razors,  indicating  no  small 
care  given  to  personal  appearance — bodkins,  or  piercers,  needles, 
with  eyes  either  at  the  end  or  some  distance  from  the  end, 
articles  of  fishing  tackle,  such  as  single  and  double  fishing-hooks 
(Figs.  185  and  186),  with  a  plain  or  barbed  point — harpoons, 
various  small  vessels,  &c. 


Fig.  185.— Bronze  Fish-hook,  from  the  Fig.  186.— Double  Fish-hook,  from  the 

Lacustrine  settlements  of  Switzer-  Lacustrine    settlements    of   Switzer- 

land, land. 

We  shall  dwell,  although  briefly,  on  the  various  objects  of  per- 
sonal ornament  which  have  been  found  in  the  Swiss  lacustrine 
settlements  of  the  bronze  epoch. 

We  will  mention,  in  the  first  place,  the  hair-pins,  &c.,  which 
have  been  recovered  from  the  various  lakes.  The  most  curious 
fact  about  them  is,  that  no  one  has  ever  found  two  exactly  alike 
both  in  shape  and  dimensions.  We  borrow  from  M.  Desor's 
work  the  four  following  figures  representing  various  shapes  of 
pins.  Some  have  a  round  head  (Fig.  187),  and  others  a  flat  (Fig. 
1 88),  or  cylindrical  head  (Fig.  189);  others,  again,  are  finished  off 
with  a  twisted  end  to  which  is  attached  a  moveable  end  (Fig.  190). 

The  round-headed  pins  are  sometimes  massive  in  shape  and 
unornamented,  that  is,  exactly  similar  to  the  bone  pins  of  the 
Stone  Age ;  sometimes,  and  even  more  frequently,  they  are 


THE  BRONZE  EPOCH. 


253 


perforated  with  one  or  more  round  holes  and  adorned  with  a  few 
chasings. 

The  flat-headed  pins  differ  veiy  much  in  the  diameter  of  the 
button  at  the  end,  which  is  sometimes  of  considerable  size.  There 
are  some,  the  head  of  which  is  nothing  more  than  a  small  enlarge- 


Fig.  1 88. — Hair-pin,  found 
by  M.  Desor  in  one  of  the 


Fig.  189. — Hair-pin 
with  cylindrical 
Head. 


Fig.  190. — Hair-pin 
with  curled  Head. 


Fig.    187. — Hair-pin 
found  by  M.  Desor 

in  one  of  the  Swiss  Swiss  Lakes. 

Lakes. 

ment  of  the  pin,  and  others,  in  which  there  are  two  or  three  of 
these  enlargements,  placed  a  little  way  apart  and  separated  by  a 
twist.  Their  sizes  are  very  various,  and  in  some  cases  are  so 


254  THE  AGE  OF  METALS. 

exaggerated,  that  it  is  quite  evident  that  the  objects  cannot  have 
been  used  as  hair-pins.  In  Colonel  Schwab's  collection  there  is 
one  33  inches  long,  and  M.  Troyon  has  mentioned  some  20  and 
24  inches  long. 

At  the  Exposition  Universelle  of  1 867,  in  the  collection  sent  by 
M.  Desor,  the  visitors'  admiration  might  have  been  called  forth 
by  some  of  the  pins  which  had  been  repolished  by  the  care  of 
the  learned  Swiss  naturalist.  They  were  certainly  very  elegant, 
and  ladies  of  the  present  day  might  well  have  decorated  them- 
selves with  these  ornaments,  although  they  dated  back  to  an 
era  so  many  thousands  of  years  ago. 

Among  many  savage  tribes,  the  dressing  of  the  hair,  especially 
among  the  men,  is  carried  to  an  excessively  elaborate  pitch. 
The  head  of  hair  of  an  Abyssinian  soldier  forms  a  species  of 


Fig.  191. — Bronze  Bracelet,  found  in  one  of  the  Swiss  Lakes. 

lofty  system  of  curls  which  is  meant  to  last  a  whole  life-time. 
He  carries  with  him  a  long  pin,  furnished  with  a  thick  button, 
owing  to  the  impossibility  of  reaching  his  skin  through  his  coiffure 
with  the  extremities  of  his  fingers. 

In  the  same  way  the  New  Zealanders  wear  an  enormous 
"  chignon,"  2  feet  high,  and  ornamented  with  ribbons. 

The  Chinese  and  the  Japanese  also  devote  excessive  attention 
to  the  dressing  of  their  hair. 

It  is,  therefore,  probable  that  the  inhabitants  of  the  lacustrine 
villages,  both  men  and  women,  devoted  an  immense  amount  of 
care  to  the  cultivation  of  their  coiffure.  In  the  tombs  of  the 
bronze  epoch  pins  have  been  found  2^/2  feet  in  length,  with  large 
knobs  or  buttons  at  the  end,  similar  to  those  used  by  the  Abys- 
sinian soldiers  of  our  own  day.  The  combs,  which  resembled 


THE  BRONZE  EPOCH.  255 

those  of  the  present  New  Zealanders,  although  6  inches  long, 
had  only  6  to  8  teeth,  and  must  have  been  better  fitted  to  scratch 
their  heads  than  to  dress  their  hair. 

Bracelets,  too,  have  been  found  in  some  considerable  numbers  in 
the  Swiss  lakes.  They  are  very  varied  in  their  shapes,  decidedly 
artistic  in  their  workmanship,  and  often  set  off  with  carved  designs. 

Some  (Fig.  191)  are  composed  of  a  single  ring  of  varying  width, 
the  ends  of  which  almost  meet  and  terminate  by  a  semicircular 


Fig.  192.— Another  Bronze  Bracelet. 

clasp  ;  others  (Fig.  192),  are  a  combination  of  straight  or  twisted 
wires  ingeniously  joined  to  one  another. 

We  also  find  certain  rings,  cylindrical  in  shape,  and  made  all  in 
one  piece  (Fig.  193),  which  were  probably  placed  round  the  legs. 

Some  of  these  ornaments  remain,  even  up  to  the  present  day, 
in  a  perfect  state  of  preservation.  In  an  urn  which  was  recovered 
from  the  settlement  of  Cortaillod,  six  specimens  were  discovered, 
the  designs  of  which  appeared  quite  as  clearly  as  if  they  had  only 


Fig.  193.— Bronze  Ring. 

just  been  engraved.  There  is  one  point  which  must  be  remarked, 
because  it  forms  an  important  datum  in  respect  to  the  size  of  the 
Swiss  people  during  the  bronze  epoch  ;  this  is,  that  most  of  the 
bracelets  are  so  small  that  they  could  scarcely  be  worn  nowadays. 
They  must,  therefore,  have  been  adapted  to  very  slender  wrists 
— a  fact  which  naturally  leads  us  to  believe  that  all  the  other 
limbs  were  small  in  proportion.  This  small  size  in  the  bracelets 
coincides  with  the  diminutiveness  of  the  sword-hilts  which  have 
been  found  in  the  lacustrine  habitations  of  Switzerland. 


256 


THE  AGE  OF  METALS. 


Earrings,  also,  have  been  found  in  great  numbers  in  the  Swiss 
lakes.  They  are  either  metallic  plates,  or  wires  differently 
fashioned  ;  all,  Jiowever,  testifying  to  a  somewhat  developed 
degree  of  taste. 


Fig.  194. — Bronze  Pendant  from  the  Lacustrine 
Habitations  of  Switzerland. 


Fig.  195. — Another  Bronze  Pendant  from  the 
Lacustrine  Habitations  of  Switzerland. 


Next  after  these  trinkets  and  objects  of  adornment  we  must 
class  certain  articles  of  a  peculiar  character  which  must  have  been 
pendants  or  appendages  to  bracelets. 

All  these  ornaments  are,  in  fact,  perforated  at  the  top  with  a 


Fig.  196.-  Bronze  Ring  from  the  Lacustrine 
Habitations  of  Switzerland. 


Fig.  197.— Another  Ornamental  Ring. 


circular  hole,  intended,  no  doubt,  to  have  a  thread  passed  through 
it,  by  which  it  was  hung  round  the  neck.  Some  of  them  (Fig. 
194),  are  small  triangular  plates  of  metal,  frequently  ornamented 


THE  BRONZE  EPOCH.  257 

with  engraved  designs ;  others  (Fig.  195),  are  in  openwork,  and 
include  several  branches,  each  terminated  by  a  hole  similar  to 
that  at  the  top.  Some,  again,  assume  the  form  of  a  ring  not 
completely  closed  up  (Fig.  196),  or  rather,  perhaps,  of  a  crescent 
with  wide  and  almost  contiguous  horns.  In  the  same  class  may 
be  placed  the  rings  (Fig.  197)  to  which  were  suspended  movable 
ornaments  in  the  shape  of  a  double  spiral. 

The  four  bronze  objects,  representations  of  which  we  have  just 
given,  are  designed  from  the  sketches  supplied  by  M.  Desor  in 
his  "  Memoire  sur  les  Palafittes." 

Some  few  trinkets  of  gold  have  been  found  in  the  lacustrine 
settlements  of  the  bronze  epoch  ;  but  this  sort  of  "  find  "  is  very 
rare.  They  are  in  the  form  of  earrings,  and  may  be  seen  in  the 
collection  of  Colonel  Schwab. 


258  THE  AGE   OF  METALS. 


CHAPTER    VI. 

Industrial  Skill  and  Agriculture  during  the  Bronze  Epoch — The  Invention  of  Glass 
— Invention  of  Weaving. 

THE  manufacture  of  pottery,  which  appears  to  have  remained 
stationary  during  the  Stone  Age,  assumed  a  considerable  de- 
velopment during  the  bronze  epoch.  The  clay  intended  for  making 
pottery  was  duly  puddled,  and  the  objects  when  moulded  were 
baked  in  properly-formed  furnaces.  At  this  date  also  commences 
the  art  of  surfacing  articles  of  earthenware. 

The  specimens  of  pottery  which  have  been  found  in  the  settle- 
ments of  man  of  this  period  are  both  numerous  and  interesting ; 
entire  vessels  have  indeed  been  discovered.  We  notice  indications 
of  very  marked  progress  beyond  the  objects  of  this  kind  manu- 
factured in  the  preceding  age.  They  are  still  fashioned  by  the 
hand,  and  without  the  aid  of  the  wheel ;  but  the  shapes  are  both 
more  varied  in  their  character  and  more  elegant.  In  addition  to 
this,  although  in  the  larger  kind  of  vessels  the  clay  used  is  still 
rough  in  its  nature  and  full  of  hard  lumps  of  quartz  like  the 
material  employed  in  the  Stone  Age,  that  of  the  smaller  vessels 
is  much  finer,  and  frequently  covered  with  a  black-lead  coating. 

Most  of  these  vessels  are  characterised  by  a  conical  base,  a  shape 
which  we  had  before  occasion  to  point  out  in  the  stag's-horn 
vessels  of  the  Stone  Age.  If,  therefore,  it  was  requisite  to  place 
them  upright,  the  lower  ends  of  them  had  to  be  stuck  into  the 
earth,  or  to  be  placed  in  holders  hollowed  out  to  receive  them. 

Some  of  these  supports,  or  holders,  have  been  discovered.  They 
are  called  torches,  or  torcheres,  by  French  archaeologists. 

Figs.  198  and  199  give  a  representation  of  a  bronze  vessel 
from  the  lacustrine  habitations  of  Switzerland  with  its  support  or 
torchhe. 


THE  BRONZE  EPOCH. 


259 


In  a  general  way,  the  vessels  made  with  conical  bases  have  no 
handles ;  but  others,  on  the  contrary,  are  provided  with  them 
(Fig.  200).  They  are  nearly  always  ornamented  with  some  sort 
of  design,  either  mere  lines  parallel  to  the  rim,  triangles,  chevrons, 
or  rows  of  points  round  the  handle  or  the  neck.  Even  the  very 


Fig.  198. — Earthenware  Vessel  with  Conical  Bottom,     Fig.   199. — Earthen  Vessel  placed  on  its  sup- 
from  the  Lacustrine  Habitations  of  Switzerland.  port. 

roughest  specimens  are  not  altogether  devoid  of  ornamentation, 
and  a  stripe  may  often  be  observed  round  the  neck,  on  which  the 
fingers  of  the  potter  have  left  their  traces. 

These  vessels  were  intended  to  contain  beverages  and  substances 


Fig.  200. — Fragment  of  an  Earthen  Vessel  with  a  Handle. 

used  for  food.     Out  of  one  of  them  M.  Desor  took  some  apples, 
cherries,  wild  plums,  and  a  large  quantity  of  nuts.    Some  of  these 
vessels,  perforated  with  small  holes,  were  used  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  cheese.     Dishes,  porringers,  &c.,  have  also  been  found. 
Relics  of  the  pottery  of  the  Stone  Age  are  very  frequently 


260 


THE  AGE   OF  METALS. 


recovered  from  the  Swiss  lakes  ;  but  vessels  in  an  entire  state  are 
seldom  met  with.  It  is,  however,  stated  as  a  fact  that  consider- 
able accumulations  of  them  once  existed  ;  but,  unfortunately,  the 
importance  of  them  was  not  recognised  until  too  late.  An  old 
fisherman  of  the  Lake  of  Neuchatel  told  M.  Desor  that  in  his  child- 
hood he  had  sometimes  amused  himself  by  pushing  at  these  old 
earthen  pots  with  a  long  pole,  and  that  in  certain  parts  of  the  lake 
there  were  real  mountains  of  them.  At  the  present  day  the  old 
earthen  pots  are  all  broken,  and  nothing  but  pieces  can  be  recovered. 
These  relics  are,  however,  sufficient  to  afford  a  tolerably  exact 
idea  of  the  way  in  which  the  primitive  Swiss  used  to  fashion  clay. 
They  seem  to  denote  large  vessels  either  cylindrical  (Figs.  201  and 
202)  .or  bulbous-shaped  with  a  flat  bottom  moulded  by  the  hand 


Fig.  201.— Vessel  of  Baked  Clay,  from  the 
Lacustrine  Settlements  of  Switzerland. 


Fig.  202.— Vessel  of  Baked  Clay,  from  the 
Lacustrine  Settlements  of  Switzerland. 


without  the  aid  of  a  potter's  wheel.  The  material  of  which  they 
are  composed  is  rough,  and  of  a  grey  or  black  colour,  and  is 
always  mingled  with  small  grains  of  quartz ;  the  baking  of  the 
clay  is  far  from  satisfactory. 

The  ornamentation  is  altogether  of  an  ordinary  character.  It 
generally  consists  of  mere  lines  traced  out  in  the  soft  clay,  either 
by  the  finger,  a  pointed  stick,  or  sometimes  a  string  was  used. 
There  are  neither  curves  nor  arabesques  of  any  kind ;  the  lines 
are  almost  always  straight. 

A  few  of  the  vessels  are,  however,  decorated  in  a  somewhat 
better  style.  Some  are  provided  with  small  projections  perforated 
with  holes,  through  which  might  be  passed  a  string  for  the  pur- 
pose of  hanging  them  up  ;  there  are  others  which  have  a  row  of 
studs  arranged  all  round  them,  just  below  the  rim,  and  others, 


THE  BRONZE  EPOCH.  261 

indeed,  in  which  hollows  take  the  place  of  the  studs.  Several 
have  been  met  with  which  are  pierced  with  holes  at  different 
heights  ;  it  is  supposed  that  they  were  used  in  the  preparation 
of  milk-curd,  the  holes  being  made  to  let  out  the  whey.  The 
vessels  of  this  period  are  entirely  devoid  of  handles ;  this  orna- 
ment did  not  appear  until  the  Bronze  Age. 

Mill-stones,  or  stones  for  crushing  grain,  are  not  unfrequently 
found  in  the  Swiss  lakes. 

At  some  date  during  the  period  we  are  now  discussing  we  must 
place  the  discovery  of  glass.  Glass  beads  of  a  blue  or  green  colour 
are,  in  fact,  found  in  the  tombs  of  the  bronze  epoch.  What  was 
their  origin  ?  Chemistry  and  metallurgy  combine  to  inform  us 
that  as  soon  as  bronze  foundries  existed  glass  must  have  been 
discovered.  What,  in  fact,  does  glass  consist  of?  A  silicate 
with  a  basis  of  soda  and  potash,  combined  with  some  particles 
of  the  silicates  of  iron  and  copper,  which  coloured  it  blue  and 
green.  As  the  scoria  from  bronze  foundries  is  partly  composed 
of  these  silicates,  it  is  indubitable  that  a  kind  of  glass  was  formed 
in  the  earliest  metal  works  where  this  alloy  was  made.  It  con- 
stituted the  slag  or  dross  of  the  metal  works. 

Thus,  the  classic  tradition  which  attributes  the  invention  of 
glass  to  certain  Phoenician  merchants,  who  produced  a  mass  of 
glass  by  heating  on  the  sand  the  natron,  that  is  soda,  brought  from 
Egypt,  ascribe  too  recent  a  date  to  the  discovery  of  this  substance. 
It  should  properly  be  carried  back  to  the  bronze  epoch. 

The  working  of  amber  was  carried  out  to  a  very  great  extent 
by  these  peoples.  Ornaments  and  objects  of  this  material  have 
been  discovered  in  great  abundance  in  the  lacustrine  settlements 
of  Switzerland. 

On  the  whole,  if  we  compare  the  industrial  skill  of  the  bronze 
age  with  that  of  the  preceding  age,  we  shall  find  that  the  later 
is  vastly  superior  to  the  earlier. 

The  art  of  weaving  seems  to  have  been  invented  during  the 
Stone  Age.  We  have  positive  and  indisputable  proofs  that  the 
people  who  lived  during  this  epoch  were  acquainted  with  the  art 
of  manufacturing  cloth.*  All  the  objects  which  we  have  thus 

*  See  "The  Lake  Dwellings  of  Switzerland,"  &c.,  p.  323,  by  Dr.  F.  Keller. 
Translated  and  edited  by  Dr.  J.  E.  Lee.  London,  1866. 


262  THE  AGE  OF  METALS. 

far  considered  do  not,  in  fact,  surpass  those  which  might  be  ex- 
pected from  any  intelligent  savage  ;  but  the  art  of  preparing  and 
manufacturing  textile  fabrics  marks  out  one  of  the  earliest  acqui- 
sitions of  man's  civilisation. 

In  the  Museum  of  Saint-Germain  we  may  both  see  and  handle 
some  specimens  of  woven  cloth  which  were,  met  with  in  some  of 
the  lacustrine  settlements  in  Switzerland,  and  specially  at  Roben- 
hausen  and  Wangen.  This  cloth,  which  is  represented  in  Fig.  203, 
taken  from  a  specimen  in  the  Museum  of  Saint-Germain,  is  formed 
of  twists  of  interwoven  flax  ;  of  rough  workmanship,  it  is  true, 
but  none  the  less  remarkable,  considering  the  epoch  in  which  it 
Avas  manufactured.  It  is  owing  to  the  fact  of  their  having  been 
charred  and  buried  in  the  peat  that  these  remains  of  pre-historic 
fabrics  have  been  kept  in  good  preservation  up  to  the  present  time. 


Fig.  203.— Cloth  of  the  Bronze  Age,  found  in  the  Lacustrine  Settlements  of  Switzerland. 

Balls  of  thread  and  twine  have  also  been  found  ;  likewise  ends 
of  cord,  and  ropes  made  of  bark,  nets  with  large  and  moderately- 
sized  meshes,  which  we  have  previously  represented,  and  lastly 
some  fragments  of  a  basket  of  straw  or  osier. 

Ribs  of  animals,  split  through  and  tapering  off  at  one  end,  have 
been  considered  to  be  the  teeth  of  the  cards  or  combs  which  were 
used  for  unravelling  the  flax.  The  whole  comb  was  formed  of 
several  of  these  bones  joined  firmly  together  with  a  band. 

There  were  also  found  in  the  Swiss  lakes  a  large  number  of 
discs  made  of  baked  earth  perforated  with  a  hole  in  their  centre, 
of  which  we  here  give  a  representation  (Fig.  205),  taken  from  one 
of  the  numerous  specimens  in  the  Museum  of  Saint-Germain. 
There  are  ordinary  spindle-whorls. 

Also,  terra  cotta  weights  pierced  with  a  hole  through  the  centre 


Fig.  204.— The  First  Weaver.     (Page  262.) 


THE  BRONZE  EPOCH.  263 

were  intended  to  support  the  thread  of  flax  in  the  weaving-loom. 
The  thread  passed  through  the  hole  and  was  stopped  by  a  knot 
at  its  extremity.  We  think  that  this  interpretation  of  the  use  of 
these  objects  can  hardly  be  called  in  question. 

We  also  find  in  the  lacustrine  settlements  woven  fabrics, 
threads,  strings,  combs  used  for  carding  the  flax,  and  spindle- 
whorls;  the  co-existence  of  all  these  objects  proves  that  the 
invention  of  the  art  of  weaving  may  be  fixed  at  this  date.  The 
loom  of  the  weaver  may,  therefore,  be  traced  back  to  the  most 
remote  ages. 

Acting  upon  this  idea  we  have  given  a  representation  of  weav- 
ing in  prc-historic  times. 

The  weaving-loom  is  so  simple  a  matter  that  the  men  of  the 
Bronze  Age  were  enabled  to  produce  it  in  nearly  the  same  form 
as  that  in  which  it  exists  in  the  present  day  for  the  manufacture 


Fig.  205.— Spindle-whorls  made  of  baked  Clay,  found  in  the  Lacustrine  Settlements  of  Switzerland. 

of  plain  kinds  of  cloth  in  various  districts  of  the  world  where  the 
art  is  still  in  a  barbaric  condition.  The  loom  being  upright,  not 
horizontal  as  with  us,  the  terra  cotta  weights  just  mentioned  were 
used  to  keep  the  threads  of  the  warp  stretched.  This  seems  to 
be  the  only  difference.  But,  as  we  again  repeat,  the  weaver's 
loom,  on  the  whole,  must  have  differed  but  very  slightly  from 
that  of  the  present  day.  Its  productions  bear  testimony  to  the 
fact. 

Metal  weapons  and  implements  were  at  first  obtained  by  means 
of  exchange.  But  very  soon  the  art  of  manufacturing  bronze 
became  prevalent  in  Switzerland,  and  foundries  were  established 
there.  No  doubt  can  be  entertained  on  this  point,  as  a  mould  for 
celts  or  hatchets  has  been  found  at  Merges,  and  also  a  bar  of  tin 
.at  Estavayer. 


264  THE  AGE  OF  METALS. 

During  this  epoch  the  shape  of  the  pottery  became  more  ad- 
vanced in  character,  and  ornamentation  was  the  rule  and  not 
the  exception.  After  the  indispensable  comes  the  superfluous. 
Taste  in  ornamentation  made  its  appearance,  and  soon  developed 
itself  in  ceramic  objects  of  an  elegant  style.  Articles  of  pottery 
now  assumed  more  pleasing  outlines,  and  were  ornamented  with 
various  designs.  Progress  in  artistic  feeling  was  evidently 
manifested. 

The  simplicity  and  monotony  of  ornamentation  during  this 
epoch  is  especially  remarkable.  Art  was  then  confined  to  the 
mere  representation  of  a  certain  number  of  lines  and  geometrical 
figures.  They  were  similar  to  those  represented  in  Fig.  206,  and 
were  applied  to  all  kinds  of  objects — weapons,  vases,  utensils 


©  4-  *  + 


Fig.  206. —Principal  Designs  for  the  ornamentation  of  Pottery  during  the  Bronze  Epoch. 

and  trinkets.  None  of  them  attempt  any  delineation  of  nature  ; 
this  idea  does  not  seem  to  have  entered  into  the  head  of  man 
during  the  bronze  epoch.  In  this  respect  they  were  inferior  to 
their  predecessors,  the  inhabitants  of  the  caves  of  Perigord,  the 
contemporaries  of  the  mammoth  and  the  reindeer. 

During  the  period  we  are  now  considering,  commercial  inter- 
course had  assumed  an.  activity  of  a  totally  different  character 
from  that  manifested  during  the  Stone  Age.  It  became  necessary 
to  procure  tin,  which  was  indispensable  for  the  manufacture  of 
bronze.  As  no  tin  ore  could  be  found  in  Switzerland,  the  inhabi- 
tants, doubtless,  went  to  Saxony  in  order  to  obtain  it.  The 
traffic  must  have  been  carried  out  by  means  of  barter,  as  is 
customary  among  all  infant  nations.. 

Flint,    which    likewise    did    not   exist   in    Switzerland,   was 


THE  BRONZE  EPOCH.  26$ 

necessarily  procured  from  the  surrounding  countries  which  were 
more  fortunate  in  this  respect.  No  country  was  more  favoured 
on  this  point  than  France ;  commerce  must,  therefore,  have 
existed  between  the  two  countries. 

At  Concise,  in  Switzerland,  some  pieces  of  white  coral  were 
found,  and  at  Meilen,  on  the  banks  of  the  Lake  of  Zurich,  some 
fragments  of  amber  ;  from  this  we  may  conclude  that  during  the 
bronze  epoch  the  inhabitants  of  Switzerland  traded  with  the  in- 
habitants of  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean  and  the  Baltic. 

Among  the  other  specimens  of  foreign  productions,  we  must  not 
omit  to  mention  graphite,  which  was  used  to  surface  pottery,  amber 
beads,  and  even  a  few  glass  trinkets  suitable  for  female  adornment. 

We  will  now  pass  on  to  the  system  of  food  adopted  by  man 
during  the  bronze  epoch. 

Researches  made  in  various  lacustrine  settlements  have  furnished 
us  with  very  circumstantial  information  upon  the  system  of  food 
customary  among  the  earliest  inhabitants  of  Switzerland.  From 
them  we  learn  that  these  men  did  not  live  solely  upon  the  pro- 
ducts of  fishing  and  hunting,  but  that  they  possessed  certain  ideas 
of  agriculture,  and  also  devoted  themselves  to  the  breeding  of 
cattle.  We  shall  enter  into  a  few  details  as  to  this  eminently  in- 
teresting aspect  of  their  history,  taking  as  our  guides  Professors 
Heer  and  Rutimeyer,  the  first  of  whom  has  carefully  examined 
the  vegetable  remains,  and  the  second  the  animal  relics  which 
have  been  found  in  the  lacustrine  settlements  of  Switzerland. 

At  Meilen,  Moosseedorf,and  Wangen  some  charred  cereals  have 
been  found,  viz.,  barley  and  wheat.  The  latter  was  the  most 
abundant,  and,  at  Wangen  in  particular,  there  were  several  bushels, 
of  it,  either  in  ears  or  in  thrashed  corn,  collected  in  large  heaps.. 
These  grains  are  almost  the  same  shape  and  size  as  the  wheat  of 
the  present  time.  Several  ears  of  six-rowed  barley  (Hordeum 
hexastichon)  were  found,  which  differ  from  our  common  barley  in 
having  smaller  grains  arranged  in  six  rows.  De  Candolle  is  of 
opinion  that  this  is  the  species  which  was  cultivated  by  the  ancient 
Greeks,  Egyptians,  and  Romans. 

This  corn  was  preserved  in  large  earthen  vessels,  as  may  be 
gathered  from  the  contents  of  some  of  them,  still  in  an  entire  state. 

What  preparation  did  the  corn  undergo  in  order  to  render  it  fit 


266  THE  AGE   OF  METALS. 

for  human  food  ?  On  this  subject  we  have  tolerably  exact  data 
to  go  upon. 

The  grain  was  bruised  by  hand,  either  between  two  stone  discs 
or  mill-stones,  or  in  a  mortar  by  means  of  a  round  pestle.  In 
almost  all  of  the  lacustrine  villages,  some  of  these  mill-stones, 
made  of  granite  or  sandstone,  have  been  met  with,  a  few  of  which 
are  as  much  as  2.  feet  in  diameter.  M.  Heer  is  of  opinion  that 
the  grain  was  parched  before  being  pounded,  and  then  placed  in 
vessels  and  slightly  soaked.  In  this  state  it  was  fit  for  eating. 

At  the  time  of  the  conquest  of  the  Canary  Islands  by  the 
Spaniards,  it  was  remarked  that  the  natives  prepared  their  corn 
in  this  manner ;  and  in  the  present  day  the  inhabitants  of  the 
same  regions  still  feed  on  parched  grain. 

Nevertheless,  the  earliest  inhabitants  of  western  Switzerland 
also  made  real  bread,  or  rather  wheat-cakes,  for  leaven  was  not 
then  known.  Charred  fragments  of  these  loaves  have  been  found, 
the  grain  of  which  is  badly  ground,  thus  affording  us  the  oppor- 
tunity of  recognising  the  species  of  corn  of  which  they  are  com- 
posed. These  fragments  are  flat,  and  indicate  that  the  whole  cake 
was  of  a  circular  form.  No  doubt,  after  being  bruised  and  wetted, 
the  grain  was  made  into  a  sort  of  dough,  which  was  baked  between 
two  heated  stones — a  process  we  have  previously  described  as 
having  been  practised  in  the  Stone  Age. 

In  order  to  cultivate  cereals,  it  was,  of  course,  necessary  for  the 
ground  to  undergo  some  preliminary  preparation.  It  was  at  least 
necessary  to  break  it  up  so  as  to  mellow  it,  and  to  make  furrows  in 
which  to  sow  the  seed.  We  are  reduced  to  mere  conjecture  as  to 
all  the  details  of  these  operations,  for  no  agricultural  implements 
have  been  discovered  in  any  of  the  settlements  of  man  belonging 
to  the  bronze  epoch.  Perhaps,  as  M.  Heer  suggests,  they  made 
use  of  the  stem  of  a  tree  with  a  projecting  crooked  branch,  and 
adapted  it  so  as  to  perform  the  functions  of  the  plough. 

Wild  fruits  and  berries  formed  a  considerable  portion  of  the  food 
of  the  earliest  lacustrine  peoples  ;  and,  from  certain  indications, 
which  have  been  brought  to  our  notice,  we  have  reason  to  believe 
that  several  varieties  of  trees  were  the  objects  of  their  intelligent 
culture ;  in  short,  that  they  were  cultivated  in  orchards  and  gardens. 
The  settlement  of  Robenhausen  on  the  Lake  of  Pfa^ffikon,  has  fur- 


THE  BRONZE  EPOCH.  267 

nished  us  with  the  most  valuable  information  on  this  point.  The 
lacustrine  villages  of  Wangen  (Lake  of  Constance),  and  Concise 
(Lake  of  Neuchatel)  have  also  been  the  scenes  of  curious  discoveries. 

In  all  of  these  settlements  a  large  number  of  charred  apples 
have  been  met  with,  cut  in  two,  and  sometimes  four  pieces,  and 
evidently  stored  up  for  the  winter.  These  apples  are  no  larger 
than  walnuts,  and,  in  many  of  the  Swiss  forests  a  species  of  apple 
still  exists  which  appears  to  be  the  same  sort  as  those  found  in 
the  lacustrine  settlements.  Pears  have  been  discovered  only  in 
the  settlement  of  Wangen  ;  they  were  cut  up  and  dried  just  like 
the  apples. 

In  the  mud  of  the  lakes,  stones  of  the  wild  plum  and  the  bird- 
cherry,  or  Sainte-Lucie  plum,  were  found ;  also  the  seeds  of  black- 
berries and  raspberries,  the  shells  of  beech-nuts  and  hazel-nuts 
and  several  species  of  the  water-chestnut,  which  is  now  only  to 
be  met  with  at  two  points  of  the  Swiss  Alps. 

We  must  also  add  that  M.  Gillieron  collected  in  the  settlement 
of  the  Isle  of  Saint-Pierre,  oats,  peas,  lentils,  and  acorns,  the  latter 
evidently  having  been  intended  for  the  food  of  swine.  This  dis- 
covery is  an  important  one,  because  oats  had  hitherto  never  been 
met  with  anywhere. 

We  shall  complete  this  list  of  names  by  enumerating  the  other 
vegetables  which  have  been  ascertained  to  have  existed  in  the 
lake  settlements,  the  berries  and  seeds  of  some  of  which  were  used 
as  food,  &c.  They  are  the  strawberry,  the  beech,  the  yew,  the 
dog-rose,  which  is  found  in  hedges,  the  white  and  yellow  water- 
lily,  the  rush,  and  the  forest  and  the  marsh  pine.  There  are  no 
traces  of  the  vine,  rye,  or  hemp. 

Fig.  207,  representing  the  cultivation  of  gardens  during  the 
bronze  epoch,  is  intended  to  sum  up  and  delineate  materially  all 
the  ideas  we  have  previously  suggested  concerning  the  agricul- 
tural and  horticultural  knowledge  possessed  by  man  during  the 
bronze  epoch.  A  gardener  is  tilling  the  ground  with  a  horn  pick- 
axe, a  representation  of  which  we  have  previously  given.  Others 
are  gathering  fruit  from  trees  which  have  been  planted  and  culti- 
vated with  a  view  of  increasing  the  stock  of  food. 

The  sheep  and  oxen,  which  may  be  noticed  in  this  figure,  indi- 
cate the  domestication  of  these  animals,  and  of  their  having  been 


268  THE  AGE   OF  METALS. 

reared  as  tame  cattle.  The  dog,  the  faithful  companion  of  man, 
could  scarcely  have  been  omitted  in  this  assemblage  of  the  auxi- 
liary or  domestic  animals  of  the  bronze  epoch. 

The  bones  which  have  been  found  in  the  lacustrine  settlements 
of  Switzerland  have  enabled  us  to  reconstruct  with  some  degree 
of  accuracy  the  fauna  of  this  epoch,  and  to  ascertain  what  species 
of  animals  were  then  in  subjugation  to  the  yoke  of  man. 

Professor  Rutimeyer  is  of  opinion  that  the  whole  of  these  bones 
may  be  referred  to  about  seventy  species  of  animals — ten  of  which 
are  fish,  three  reptiles,  twenty  birds,  and  the  rest  mammiferous 
animals. 

The  remains  most  commonly  met  with  are  those  of  the  stag  and 
the  ox,  the  former  wild,  and  the  latter  domestic.  Next  in  order 
comes  the  pig,  remains  of  which  are  also  very  abundant ;  then 
follows  the  roe,  the  goat,  and  the  sheep,  all  of  which  are  much 
less  common.  The  remains  of  the  fox  are  met  with  almost  as 
often  as  those  of  the  latter  species,  and,  in  spite  of  the  fcetid  smell 
of  this  animal,  it  certainly  was  used  for  food — a  fact  which  is 
proved  by  its  bones  having  been  split  open  and  notched  with 
knives.  It  is,  however,  very  probable  that  this  kind  of  suste- 
nance was  turned  to  as  a  last  resort  only  in  cases  when  no  other 
more  suitable  food  could  be  obtained. 

The  long  bones  which  have  been  found  in  lakes,  like  those  met 
with  in  caves  and  kitchen-middens,  have  been  split  in  order  to 
extract  the  marrow.  Just  as  in  the  kitchen-middens,  the  softer 
parts  are  always  gnawed,  which  shows  us  that  the  dog  had  been 
there. 

The  repugnance  which  is  felt  by  so  many  nations  for  the  flesh 
of  the  hare  is  a  very  curious  fact,  and  shows  us  how  difficult  it  is 
to  root  out  certain  prejudices.  This  repugnance  may  be  traced 
back  as  far  as  pre-historic  ages.  Neither  the  diluvial  beds,  the 
caves,  the  kitchen-middens,  nor  the  lacustrine  settlements  have, 
in  fact,  furnished  us  with  any  traces  of  the  hare.  Even  in  the 
present  day,  the  Laplanders  and  Greenlanders  banish  this  animal 
from  their  alimental  list. 

Among  the  Hottentots  the  women  eat  it  but  not  the  men.  The 
Jews,  too,  look  upon  it  as  unclean,  and  many  years  have  not 
elapsed  since  the  Bretons  would  hardly  endure  to  hear  it  spoken  of 


-mi 


THE  BRONZE  EPOCH.  269 

The  antipathy  which  is  thus  shown  by  certain  modern  nations 
to  the  flesh  of  the  hare  has,  therefore,  been  handed  down  to 
them  from  the  primitive  ages  of  mankind. 

The  researches  of  Prof.  Riitimeyer  have  led  to  the  conclusion 
that  there  existed  in  Switzerland  during  the  Stone  Age  six  species 
of  domestic  animals — the  ox,  the  pig,  the  goat,  the  sheep,  the  dog, 
and  the  horse,  the  latter  being  very  rare.  There  were,  also,  three 
specimens  of  the  bovine  race  ;  the  two  wild  species  of  the  ox 
genus,  namely,  the  urus  and  the  bison,  both  very  anciently 
known,  had  been  increased  by  a  third,  the  domestic  ox. 

The  bones  belonging  to  the  Stone  Age  seem  to  point  to  the 
existence  of  a  larger  proportion  of  wild  beasts  than  of  domestic 
animals  ;  and  this  is  only  what  might  be  expected,  for  the  art  of 
domesticating  animals  was  at  this  epoch  still  in  its  infancy,  but  a 
commencement  had  been  made,  and  the  practice  continued  to 
spread  rapidly  during  the  following  age. 

In  fact,  agriculture  and  the  breeding  of  cattle  made  consider- 
able progress  during  the  bronze  epoch.  There  were  brought  into 
use  various  new  breeds  of  cattle.  The  ox  became  a  substitute  for 
the  bison  ;  the  sheep  was  bred  as  well  as  the  goat ;  and  all  these 
animals  were  devoted  to  the  purpose  of  providing  food  for  man. 

We  may  here  pause  for  a  moment  and  contemplate,  with  just 
pride,  this  marvellous  resuscitation  of  an  era  long  ago  buried  in 
the  darkness  of  bygone  ages. 

By  means  of  the  investigations  of  science,  we  know  that  the 
primitive  inhabitants  of  Switzerland  dwelt  in  wooden  villages 
built  on  lakes  ;  that  they  were  hunters,  fishers,  shepherds,  and 
husbandmen  ;  that  they  cultivated  wheat,  barley,  and  oats  ;  that 
they  brought  into  a  state  of  servitude  several  species  of  animals, 
and  devoted  to  the  requirements  of  agriculture  the  sheep  and  the 
goat ;  that  they  were  acquainted  with  the  principal  rudiments  of 
the  baker's  art ;  that  they  stored  up  apples,  pears,  and  other  fruits 
or  berries  for  the  winter,  either  for  their  own  use  or  that  of  their 
cattle  ;  that  they  understood  the  art  of  weaving  and  manu- 
facturing flaxen  fabrics  ;  that  they  twisted  up  cord  and  mats  of 
bark  ;  and,  lastly,  that  as  a  material  for  the  manufacture  of  their 
implements  and  weapons  they  availed  themselves  of  stone, 
bronze,  animals'  bones,  and  stag's  horn. 


, 
270  THE  AGE   OF  METALS. 

It  is  equally  certain  that  they  kept  up  some  kind  of  commercial 
intercourse  with  the  adjacent  countries.  This  must  have  been 
the  case,  if  it  were  only  for  the  purpose,  as  before  mentioned,  of 
procuring  flints,  which  are  not  found  in  Switzerland  ;  also  amber 
and  white  coral,  numerous  relics  of  which  have  been  met  with 
in  the  settlements  of  Meilen  and  Concise. 

Though  there  may  still  remain  many  an  obscure  page  in  the 
history  of  mankind  during  the  bronze  epoch,  it  must,  neverthe- 
less, be  confessed  that,  as  far  as  Switzerland  is  concerned,  a  bright 
light  has  of  late  years  been  thrown  on  that  branch  of  the  sub- 
ject which  refers  to  man's  mode  of  existence  in  these  regions 
during  the  bronze  epoch. 


THE  BRONZE  EPOCH.  271 


CHAPTER    VII. 

The  Art  of  War  during  the  Bronze  Epoch — Swords,  Spears,  and  Daggers — The 
Bronze  Epoch  in  Scandinavia,  in  the  British  Isles,  France,  Switzerland,  and  Italy 
— Did  the  Man  of  the  Bronze  Epoch  entertain  any  religious  or  superstitious  Belief? 

THE  Swiss  lakes  have  furnished  us  with  elements  which  afford  us 
some  knowledge  of  the  state  of  man's  industrial  skill  during  the 
bronze  epoch,  and  also  enable  us  to  form  a  due  estimation  of  the 
manners  and  customs  of  the  people  of  these  remote  ages.  But 
if  we  wish  to  become  acquainted  with  all  the  details  which  con- 
cern the  art  of  war  at  the  same  date,  we  must  direct  our  attention 
to  the  north  of  Europe,  that  is  to  say,  to  the  Scandinavian  peoples. 

Nevertheless,  before  we  touch  upon  the  important  pre-historic 
relics  found  in  Denmark,  we  must  say  a  few  words  concerning  the 
traces  of  the  art  of  war  which  have  been  furnished  by  the  investi- 
gations made  in  the  Swiss  lakes. 

The  warlike  accoutrements  of  the  bronze  epoch  are,  like  those 
of  the  Stone  Age,  composed  of  spear-heads  and  arrow-heads, 
poniards  and,  in  addition,  swords.  Swords  are,  however,  but 
rarely  met  with  in  the  Swiss  lakes.  The  few  which  have  been 
found  are  straight,  short,  double-edged,  and  without  hilts.  In 
the  Museum  of  Neuchatel  there  is  a  sword  (Fig.  209)  which  was 
discovered  forty  years  ago  at  Concise,  at  a  time  when  no  one 
suspected  the  existence  of  any  such  thing  as  lacustrine  settle- 
ments ;  M.  Desor  has  supplied  a  sketch  of  it  in  his  "Memoire  sur 
les  Palafittes."  This  sword  measures  16  inches  in  length,  and 
has  on  its  surface  four  grooves  which  join  together  on  the  middle 
ridge  of  the  blade.  The  handle,  which  is  terminated  by  a  double 
volute,  is  remarkably  small,  being  only  3  inches  in  length. 


272 


THE  AGE   OF  METALS. 


Daggers  (Fig.  210),  too,  like  the  swords,  are  but  rarely  found  in 
the  Swiss  lakes.  From  the  specimen  found  in  the  lake  of  Bienne, 
we  see  that  the  blade  was  fixed  to  the  handle  by  means  of  a 
series  of  rivets  arranged  in  a  single  line.  This  dagger  is,  like  the 
sword  found  at  Concise,  ornamented  with  grooves  symmetrically 
placed  on  each  side  of  the  projecting  ridge  which  divides  the  blade 
into  two  equal  portions. 


Fig.  209. — Bronze  Sword,  in  the 
Museum  of  Neuchatel. 


Fig.  210. — Bronze  Dagger,  found 
in  one  of  the  Swiss  Lakes. 


In  the  collection  of  Colonel  Schwab,  there  are  two  daggers,  of 
an  extraordinary  character,  having  hilts  enriched  with  silver. 

The  spear-heads  (Fig.  211)  are  not  inferior  either  to  the  swords 
or  the  daggers  in  the  skill  and  finish  of  their  workmanship. 
They  are  formed  of  a  nearly  oval  blade,  strongly  consolidated  in 


THE  BRONZE  EPOCH. 


273 


the  middle  by  a  rounded  ridge,  which  is  prolonged  so  as  to  form 
a  socket  intended  to  hold  a  thick  wooden  handle.  The  length 
of  the  daggers  varies  from  4  to  7  inches. 

The  arrow-heads  (Fig.  212)  are,  except  in  their  material,  identical 
with  those  of  the  preceding  age.  They  are  triangular,  with  more 
or  less  pointed  barbs,  and  provided  with  a  stem,  by  which  they 
were  fastened  to  the  stick.  A  few  have,  however,  been  found 
which  are  made  with  sockets.  They  do  not  exceed  I  to  2  inches 
in  length. 

We  shall  now  pass  on  to  the  consideration  of  the  relics  found 
in  the  tombs  of  Scandinavia,  Great  Britain,  Ireland,  and  France  ; 


Fig.  2ii.— Bronze  Spear-head,  found 
in  one  of  the  Swiss  Lakes. 


Fig.  212. — Bronze  Arrow-heads,  found  in  a 
Lacustrine  Settlement  of  Switzerland. 


which  remains  will  throw  some  light  on  the  subject  of  the 
weapons  and  warlike  instruments  belonging  to  the  bronze 
epoch. 

The  Scandinavian  States  (Denmark,  Sweden,  and  Norway)  are 
very  rich  in  instruments  belonging  to  the  bronze  epoch.  The 
workmanship  of  the  swords  and  other  weapons  of  war  is  much 
more  elaborate  here  than  anywhere  else,  on  account  of  the  tardy 
introduction  of  metal  into  these  countries.  These  weapons  are 
nearly  always  adorned  with  somewhat  complicated  designs, 
among  which  curved  lines  and  spiral  scrolls  are  the  most 
prevalent. 


274 


THE  AGE   OF  METALS. 


The  Danish  swords  of  the  bronze  epoch  (Figs.  213,  214)  are  of 
quite  a  peculiar  shape.     The  hilt  is  firmly  fixed  to  the  blade  by 


Fig.  213.  —  Scandinavian  Sword. 


Fig.  214.-  Hilt  of  a  Scandinavian  Sword. 


means  of  two  or  more  rivets.     The  daggers  and  poniards  only 
differ  from  the  swords  in  the  smallness  of  their  dimensions. 

Some  of  the  hatchets  seem  to  have  been  copied  from  models 
belonging  to  the  Stone  Age  ;  these  are  probably  the  most  ancient, 
and  their  ornamentation  is  of  a  very  scanty  character.  Others  are 
winged  or  with  sockets,  and  a  few  have  been  found  perforated 


Fig.  215. — Mode  of  fixing  the  Handle  to 
a  Scandinavian  Hatchet. 


Fig.  216. — Another  mode  of  fixing  the  Handle 
to  a  Scandinavian  Hatchet. 


with  a  transverse  hole,  like  those  which  have  long  been  used  by 
civilised  nations.     In  this  hole  a  wooden  handle  was  inserted, 


•THE  BRONZE  EPOCH. 


275 


which  was  fixed  by  means  of  a  strap,  or  merely  forcibly  driven 
in.  The  rarely-found  specimens  of  this  kind  are  sharply  defined 
in  shape  and  splendidly  ornamented. 

Figs.  215  and  216,  taken  from  Sir  J.  Lubbock's  work,  represent 
the  probable  way  in  which  handles  were  fitted  to  the  various 
kinds  of  hatchets  used  in  the  North. 

The  blades  of  the  bronze  knives  found  in  Scandinavia  are,  like 
those  of  Switzerland,  somewhat  curved  in  their  shape,  but  the 
handles  are  much  more  richly  ornamented.  Two  of  these  knives 


Fig.  217. — Danish  Bronze  Knife, 
of  the  Bronze  Epoch. 


Fig.  218. — Danish  Bronze  Knife, 
of  the  Bronze  Epoch. 


have  furnished  us  with  the  only  examples  known  of  any  repre- 
sentation of  living  beings  during  the  bronze  epoch.  We  may 
notice  that  on  one  of  these  knives,  which  is  represented  in  Fig. 
217,  taken  from  Sir  J.  Lubbock's  work,  a  swan  is  roughly  carved 
at  the  offset  of  the  blade. 

In  another  knife,  which  is  represented  in  Fig.  218,  taken  from 
the  same  work,  the  handle  is  formed  by  a  human  figure,  executed 
with  some  degree  of  fidelity.  The  figure  is  in  a  standing  position, 
and  holds  in  front  of  it  a  nearly  cylindrical-shaped  vessel ;  the  in- 


276 


THE  AGE  OF  METALS. 


dividual  is  represented  as  wearing  large  earrings.  There  is  every 
reason  to  believe  that  this  last-mentioned  article  belongs  to  the 
end  of  the  bronze  epoch,  or  else  to  a  transitionary  epoch  between 
this  and  the  following,  for  the  blade  is  straight,  like  those  of  all 
the  knives  belonging  to  the  Iron  Age. 

The  same  thing  may,  doubtless,  be  said  of  several  razors 
(Fig.  219)  with  straight  blades,  which  appear  even  overloaded  with 
ornaments  ;  among  these  embellishments  is  an  attempt  to  repre- 
sent a  sort  of  vessel. 

These  designs  evidently  point  to  some  very  advanced  period  in 


Fig.  219.— Blade  of  a  Danish  Razor  of  the  Bronze  Epoch. 

the  bronze  epoch  ;  and  perhaps  these  objects  may  belong  to  the 
commencement  of  the  Iron  Age. 

What,  we  may  ask,  was  the  wearing  apparel  of  man  during  the 
period  we  are  describing  ? 

A  very  important  discovery,  made  in  1861,  in  a  tumulus  in 
Jutland  (Denmark),  has  lately  supplied  us  with  the  most  accurate 
data  respecting  the  way  in  which  the  inhabitants  of  the  north  of 
Europe  were  clothed  during  the  bronze  epoch.  In  this  tumnhis 
MM.  Worsaae  and  Herbst  found  three  wooden  coffins,  one  of 
which  was  smaller  than  the  two  others,  and  was  no  doubt  that  of 
a  child.  One  of  the  two  larger  coffins  was  minutely  examined  by 


THE  BRONZE  EPOCH.  277 

these  savants,  and  measured  inside  7  feet  in  length  and  20  inches 
in  width.  It  was  closed  up  by  means  of  a  movable  lid.  By  an 
extremely  rare  chance  the  soft  parts  of  the  body  had  been  to  some 
extent  preserved,  and  had  become  converted  into  a  black  greasy 
substance.  The  bones  were  decomposed,  and  had  decayed  into  a 
kind  of  blue  powder.  The  brain  had  preserved  its  normal  con- 
formation. They  found  it  at  one  end  of  the  coffin  (where  the 
head  had  lain)  ;  it  was  still  covered  with  a  woollen  cap,  about 
6  inches  high,  to  which  several  black  hairs  were  adhering. 

Several  woollen  garments,  in  which  the  body  had  been  buried, 
were  also  found  in  different  parts  of  the  coffin.  We  add  a  de- 
scription of  these  garments. 


Fig.  220.— Woollen  Cloak  of  the  Bronze  Epoch,  Fig.  221.— Woollen  Shawl  found  in 

found  in  1861,  in  a  Tomb  in  Denmark.  the  same  Tomb. 

There  was  in  the  first  place  a  coarse  cloak  (Fig.  220)  which  ap- 
peared shaggy  in  the  inside,  and  was  .scalloped  out  round  the 
neck.  This  cloak  was  3  feet  4  inches  long,  and  wide  in  proportion. 
Next  there  were  two  shawls  nearly  square  in  shape  (Fig.  221), 
ornamented  with  a- long  fringe,  and  measuring  4^  feet  in  length 
and  3^  feet  in  width.  Afterwards  came  a  shirt  (Fig.  222),  also 
scalloped  out  round  the  neck,  and  drawn  in  at  the  waist  by  means 
of  a  long  narrow  band.  Lastly,  at  the  feet  of  the  body,  two  pieces 
of  woollen  material  were  found,  which  were  14  inches  long  by 
4  inches  wide,  and  bore  the  appearance  of  having  been  the  remains 
of  gaiters.  Close  to  the  latter  were  also  found  vestiges  of  leather, 
evidently  belonging  to  feet-coverings  of  some  kind. 


278 


THE  AGE   OF  METALS. 


The  whole  body  had  been  wrapped  up  in  the  skin  of  an  ox. 

The  coffin  also  contained  a  box,  tied  up  with  strips  of  osier  or 
bark,  and  in  this  box  was  a  smaller  one,  in  which  were  found  two 
woven  woollen  caps  (Figs.  223,  224),  a  comb  (Fig.  225),  and  a 
bronze  razor. 


Fig.  222.— Woollen  Shirt,  taken  from  the  same  Tomb. 

We  must  not  forget  to  mention  a  bronze  sword,  placed  on  the 
left  side  of  the  body,  in  a  wooden  sheath  ;  this  sword  measured1 
about  26  inches  in  length. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  all  these  relics  were  those  of  a  warrior- 


Fig.  223.— First  Woollen  Cap, 
lound  in  the  same  Tomb. 


Fig.  224. — Second  Woollen  Cap, 
found  in  the  same  Tomb. 


Fig.  225. — Bronze  Comb  found1 
in  the  same  Tomb. 


of  the  bronze  epoch  ;  there  is  the  less  reason  to  doubt  this,, 
owing  to  the  fact  that  the  objects  taken  from  the  two  other  coffins- 
most  certainly  belonged  to  that  period.  These  were  a  sword,  a 
knife,  a  bodkin,  an  awl,  a  pair  of  tweezers,  a  double  button,  and 


Fig.  226. -Warriors  during  the  Bronze^  Epoch.     (Page  278.) 


THE  BRONZE  EPOCH. 


279 


a  small  bronze  bracelet ;  also  a  double  tin  button,  a  ball  of  amber, 
and  a  flint  spear-head. 

The  shape  of  the  swords  and  knives  shows  that  this  burial-place 
in  Jutland  must  be  referred  to  the  latter  part  of  the  bronze  epoch 
— to  a  time,  perhaps,  when  iron  was  first  used. 

Following  out  the  data  afforded  by  these  records,  and  all  the 
discoveries  which  have  been  made  in  other  tombs,  we  have  given 
in  Fig.  226  a  representation  of  warriors  of  the  bronze  epoch. 

The  accoutrements  of  the  horseman  of  pre-historic  ages  are  com- 
posed of  a  bronze  sword,  like  those  found  in  the  tombs  in  Den- 
mark, and  a  bronze  hatchet  and  sword-belt.  The  horse  is  decked 
with  round  bronze  discs,  which,  in  after  times,  formed  among  the 
Romans  the  chief  ornament  of  this  faithful  and  intrepid  auxiliary 


Fig.  227. — Bronze  Hatchet-mould  found  in  Ireland. 

of  man  in  all  his  combats.  The  horseman's  head  is  bare  ;  for  no 
helmet  or  metallic  head-covering  has  ever,  at  least,  to  our  know- 
ledge, been  discovered  in  the  tombs  of  the  bronze  epoch.  The 
spear  and  bronze  hatchet  are  the  weapons  of  the  foot-soldiers. 

Next  to  the  Scandinavian  regions,  Great  Britain  and  Ireland 
occupy  an  important  place  in  the  history  of  the  civilisation  of  the 
bronze  epoch.  The  same  type  of  implements  are  found  in  these 
countries  as  in  Denmark  and  Switzerland. 

Hatchet-moulds  (Fig.  227)  are  also  found  there — a  circumstance 
which  proves  that  the  founder's  art  was  known  and  practised  in 
these  countries.  The  Dublin  Museum  contains  a  beautiful  collec- 
tion of  various  objects  belonging  to  the  bronze  epoch. 

Some  of  the  departments  of  France  have  also  furnished  objects 


28o  THE  AGE   OF  METALS. 

belonging  to  the  same  period  ;  but  there  is  nothing  peculiar 
among  them  which  deserves  mention. 

Did  any  kind  of  religious  worship  exist  among  the  men  of  the 
bronze  epoch  ?  Nothing  would  be  more  interesting  than  any  dis- 
covery bearing  on  this  point  ;  but  up  to  the  present  time  no 
vestiges  of  anything  in  the  shape  of  an  idol  have  been  found,  nor 
anything  whatever  which  authorises  us  unhesitatingly  to  answer 
this  question  in  the  affirmative.  The  only  thing  which  might 
prove  the  existence  of  any  religious  feeling,  is  the  discovery,  in 
various  lacustrine  settlements,  of  a  certain  number  of  crescent- 
shaped  objects,  most  of  them  made  of  very  coarse  baked  earth 
and  some  of  stone. 

The  dimensions  of  these  crescents  vary  considerably  ;  there  are 
some  which  measure  as  much  as  16  inches  from  one  point  to  the 
other.  They  are  ornamented  with  perfectly  primitive  designs,  as 


Fig.  228. — Stone  Crescent  found  in  one  of  the  Swiss  Lakes. 

shown  in  Fig.  228,  drawn  at  the  Museum  of  Saint-Germain  from 
one  of  the  numerous  specimens  of  this  class  of  objects. 

Several  archaeologists  consider  these  crescents  to  have  been  reli- 
gious emblems  or  talismans,  which  were  suspended  either  outside 
or  inside  the  habitations.  Dr.  Keller  is  of  opinion  that  they  bear 
some  relation  to  the  worship  of  the  moon — an  hypothesis  which 
is  not  at  all  an  impossible  one  ;  for  all  nations  who  have  not 
attained  to  a  certain  degree  of  moral  and  intellectual  culture 
adore  the  heavenly  bodies  as  the  sources  of  light  and  heat. 

M.  Carl  Vogt,  in  considering  the  crescents  which  have  been 
discovered  in  such  large  quantities  in  the  lacustrine  habitations, 
cannot  admit  that  they  indicate  that  any  religious  belief  existed 
among  these  ancient  nations.  He  attributes  to  these  objects  a 


THE  BRONZE  EPOCH.  281 

very  different  kind  of  use,  and,  as  we  shall  presently  show,  rather 
an  odd  one. 

In  the  lectures  on  pre-historic  man  which  were  delivered  by 
Prof.  Carl  Vogt  at  Antwerp,  in  1868,  and  have  been  reported  by 
the  Belgian  journals,*  when  speaking  on  the  subject  of  the 
crescents  belonging  to  the  bronze  epoch,  he  expresses  himself  as 
follows  : — 

"  My  opinion  is  that  these  crescents  were  used  as  resting-places 
for  the  head  during  the  night.  Among  many  savage  tribes  we 
find  the  attention  paid  to  the  dressing  of  the  hair  carried  to  a  high 
pitch,  especially  among  the  men  ;  it  was  not  until  a  later  period 
that  women  also  devoted  her  cares  to  the  culture  of  her  coiffure. 
Now  this  care  is,  by  many  nations,  carried  out  to  a  really  curious 
extent.  They  inflict  the  most  severe  tortures  on  themselves  in 
order  to  satisfy  their  vanity.  Everyone  has  seen,  in  the  '  Magasin 
Pittoresque '  and  other  illustrated  journals,  the  strange  head- 
dresses of  the  Abyssinian  soldiers.  They  really  seem  to  form 
a  kind  of  fleece,  and  it  may  be  noticed  that  each  soldier  carries 
in  this  hairy  construction  a  large  pin. 

"  Well,  all  this  tends  to  explain  the  use  of  these  crescents.  In 
Abyssinia,  as  soon  as  a  young  girl  is  married  it  becomes  her  duty 
to  devote  herself  to  her  husband's  head  of  hair.  This  head  of  hair 
is  made  to  assume  a  certain  shape,  which  it  has  to  retain  during 
his  whole  lifetime.  The  labour  which  this  process  necessitates 
lasts  for  three  years.  Each  hair  is  twisted  round  a  stem  of  straw, 
and  remains  so  until  the  straw  perishes.  The  man's  head  is  thus 
covered  with  a  whole  system  of  spirals,  the  top  of  which  is  a 
foot  from  the  surface  of  his  head.  During  the  whole  remainder 
of  his  life  this  coiffure  must  never  be  again  disturbed.  When 
asleep,  the  Abyssinian  rests  the  nape  of  his  neck  on  a  triangle 
which  he  carries  about  everywhere  with  him.  He  has  also  a 
long  pin,  as  it  would  be  impossible  for  him  to  reach  the  skin  of 
his  head  with  the  end  of  his  finger. 

"  The  same  custom  exists  among  the  New  Zealanders,  who  also 
have  an  apparatus  upon  which  they  rest  their  necks,  in  order, 
when  asleep,  to  save  their  coiffures.  They  wear  an  enormous 
chignon,  two  feet  high  and  ornamented  with  ribbons,  of  which 

*  Independancc  Belge^  November  and  December,  1868. 


282  THE  AGE  OF  METALS. 

they  are  very  proud.  The  only  difference  between  this  chignon 
and  certain  others  which  I  need  not  mention  is,  that  the  former 
cannot  be  removed  at  will.  This  object,  thus  adorned,  rests, 
during  the  sleep  of  its  owner,  on  a  sort  of  framework. 

"  The  Chinese  and  Japanese  sleep,  in  the  same  way,  on  a  bed- 
stead bevelled  off  at  the  head  ;  and  in  the  Egyptian  hieroglyphical 
drawings  we  find  instruments  evidently  meant  for  the  same  use. 

"  It  is  very  probable  that  during  the  bronze  epoch  great  atten- 
tion was  devoted  to  the  hair,  and  this  is  the  more  probable  as 
in  every  tomb  belonging  to  this  period  we  find  pins  from  2  feet  to 
2^  feet  in  length,  furnished  with  large  nobs,  and  of  the  same 
shape  as  the  pins  used  by  the  Abyssinian  soldiers  ;  and  also,  be- 
cause during  the  Stone  Age,  as  well  as  the  Bronze  Age,  a  kind  of 
comb  is  found  which  is  similar  to  that  which  is  now  used  by  the 
New  Zealanders  to  scratch,  rather  than  to  comb,  their  heads. 
The  heads  of  the  pins  are  often  very  richly  ornamented  ;  they 
are  of  the  most  varied  shapes,  and  are  extremely  common  both 
in  the  tombs  and  also  in  the  lacustrine  dwellings. 

"  We  have  the  less  right  to  be  astonished  at  our  ancestors 
sleeping  with  their  heads  resting  on  such  a  machine  as  we  have 
just  described,  knowing,  as  we  do,  that  the  hussars  of  Frederick 
the  Great  used  to  spend  the  whole  night  in  arranging  their 
coiffures  !  " 

Thus,  while  Dr.  Keller  and  many  other  archaeologists  ascribe 
the  crescents  found  in  the  Swiss  lakes  to  some  kind  of  religious 
worship,  M.  Vogt,  whose  idea  is  of  a  much  more  prosaic  character, 
does  not  attribute  them  to  any  other  worship  but  that  of  self  as 
represented  by  the  hair !  The  reader  can  take  his  choice  between 
these  two  explanations.  We  shall  only  remark,  in  corroboration 
of  Dr.  Keller's  opinion,  that  certain  Gallic  tribes  used  for  a 
religious  symbol  this  very  crescent  which  M.  Vogt  would  make 
out  to  be  a  pillow — a  stone  pillow  which,  as  it  seems  to  us,  must 
have  been  very  hard,  even  for  primitive  man. 

Various  objects  found  in  the  dwellings  of  man  belonging  to  the 
bronze  epoch  appear  to  have  been  religious  symbols.  Such,  for 
instance,  are  the  designs  so  often  met  with  on  swords,  vases,  &c. 
These  drawings  never  represent  objects  in  nature  ;  they  seem 
rather  to  be  cabalistic  signs  or  talismans.  Most  of  them  bear 


THE  BRONZE  EPOCH.  283 

some  relation  to  a  circle ;  sometimes  they  are  single  circles,  and 
sometimes  combinations  of  circles.  Many  authors  have  had  the 
idea  of  attributing  them  to  the  worship  of  the  sun. 

Another  sign  was  still  more  often  used,  and  it  was  known  even 
as  early  as  the  Stone  Age — we  speak  of  the  cross.  It  is  one 
of  the  most  ancient  symbols  that  ever  existed.  M.  G.  de  Mortillet, 
in  a  work  entitled  "  La  Croix  avant  le  Christianisme,"  has  en- 
deavoured to  establish  the  fact  that  the  cross  has  always  been 
the  symbol  of  a  sect  which  contended  against  fetishism.  This 
much  is  at  least  certain,  that  it  is  one  of  the  most  ancient  sym- 
bolical signs,  for  it  is  found  depicted  on  objects  belonging  to  the 
Stone  Age  and  on  some  of  the  earliest  relics  of  the  Bronze  Age. 
At  the  time  of  the  Etruscans  the  cross  was  generally  prevalent  as 
a  sign.  But  at  a  later  period  Christianity  exclusively  monopolised 
this  religious  symbol. 

A  third  figure  is  sometimes  found  on  various  objects  belonging 
to  the  bronze  epoch  ;  this  figure  is  the  triangle. 

It  is,  on  the  whole,  very  probable  that  all  these  signs  which  are 
not  connected  with  any  known  object,  bear  some  relation  to 
certain  religious  or  superstitious  ideas  entertained  by  the  men  of 
the  bronze  epoch  ;  and,  as  a  consequence  of  this,  that  their  hearts 
must  have  been  inspired  with  some  degree  of  religious  feeling. 


284  THE  AGE   OF  METALS. 


CHAPTER   VIII. 

Mode  of  Interment  and  Burial-places  of  the  Bronze  Epoch — Characteristics  of  the 
Human  Race  during  the  same  period. 

THE  question  naturally  arises — what  was  the  mode  of  interment, 
and  what  was  the  nature  of  the  burial-places  employed  by  man 
during  the  bronze  epoch  ? 

In  the  early  part  of  this  period  the  dead  were  still  buried  in 
those  sepulchral  chambers  which  are  now  called  by  the  name  of 
dolmens ;  Nilsson  and  Lubbock  have  drawn  somewhat  confused 
and  abitrary  distinctions  in  discussing  these  burial-places  ;  but 
it  may  be  positively  asserted  that  towards  the  conclusion  of  this 
period  the  practice  of  burning  dead  bodies  was  commenced. 

In  a  work,  published  in  1869,  and  entitled  "  La  Danemark  a 
1'Exposition  Universelle,"  being  a  sort  of  catalogue  of  the  objects 
which  were  exhibited  in  the  galleries  devoted  to  the  History  of 
Labour,  in  the  Exhibition  of  the  Champ  de  Mars,  in  1867,  we 
find  several  pages  which  we  shall  quote,  as  they  seem  to  recapi- 
tulate pretty  clearly  the  ideas  which  are  now  current  among 
scientific  men  concerning  the  burial-places  and  funeral  customs 
of  the  bronze  epoch  : — 

"  The  study  which,  during  the  last  few  years  has  been  devoted 
by  M.  Worsaae  to  the  tombs  belonging  to  the  bronze  epoch,  has 
thrown  much  light,"  says  M.  Valdemar  Schmidt,  "  on  the  com- 
mencement of  the  bronze  age  in  Denmark.  It  appears  that  at 
the  first  beginning  of  the  bronze  epoch  the  dead  were  buried  in  a 
manner  similar  to  that  practised  during  the  Stone  Age,  that  is 
to  say,  the  bodies  of  the  defunct  were  deposited  in  sepulchral 
chambers  made  of  stone,  and  covered  by  tumuli ;  the  only  dif- 
ference is,  these  chambers  are  rather  small,  and  generally  contain 
but  one  skeleton.  But  to  make  up  for  this,  several  of  these 
small  sepulchral  chambers,  or  rather  stone  coffins,  are  sometimes 
found  in  the  same  tumulus. 


THE  BRONZE  EPOCH.  285 

"These  chambers  present,  however,  in  some  respects,  great  simi- 
larities with  those  of  the  Stone  Age  ;  thus,  beds  of  flint  which 
have  been  subjected  to  the  action  of  fire,  are  often  found  spread 
over  the  ground,  and  on  these  beds  skeletons  are  met  with  which 
appear  to  have  been  placed  in  a  contracted  position  before  they 
were  buried,  exactly  following  the  practice  of  the  Stone  Age. 

"  After  this  class  of  tombs  we  have  another,  in  which  the  sepul- 
chral chamber,  though  always  made  of  stone,  is  not  covered  with 
a  stone  slab,  but  with  a  wooden  roof.  Elsewhere  skeletons  have 
been  found  along  with  bronze  weapons  deposited  in  a  sort  of 
wooden  framezuork,  which  has  in  many  cases  entirely  perished 
except  a  few  minute  fragments.  These  cases  were  covered  with 
small  stones,  which  now  seem  to  lie  immediately  upon  the  skeleton. 

"  Lastly,  in  all  the  Danish  provinces  large  oak  coffins  are  found > 
formed  of  hollowed-out  trunks  of  trees ;  these  also  contain  human 
bodies,  which  seemed  to  have  been  buried  in  woollen  garments. 

"With  regard  to  the  funeral  rites  observed,  these  tombs  do  not 
appear  to  have  differed  much.  The  bodies  were  deposited  in  them 
with  their  implements,  weapons,  and  utensils,  either  of  bronze  or 
stone ;  but,  in  addition,  at  the  bottom  of  the  tomb,  animal  skins,, 
generally  those  of  oxen,  were  often  spread. 

"  Next,  a  new  period  succeeded,  when  the  bodies  were  burned 
and  the  remains  collected  together.  All  the  ancient  customs  were 
not,  however,  at  once  given  up.  Thus,  as  the  dead  were  formerly 
buried  in  woollen  garments,  the  debris  of  the  bones  were  now 
wrapped  in  pieces  of  cloaks  made  of  the  same  material.  Sub- 
sequently, however,  this  custom  also  disappeared,  and  the  ashes 
and  remains  of  bones  were  simply  collected  together  in  urns. 
This  custom  was  observed  until  the  bronze  epoch,  and  characterises, 
so  to  speak,  its  second  and  last  period — which  was,  however,  the 
longest  of  that  age. 

"  There  were,  then,  in  short,  two  distinct  epochs  in  the  bronze 
age  ;  firstly,  that  in  which  the  dead  were  quite  simply  interred, 
either  in  small  sepulchral  chambers  or  wooden  coffins ;  and, 
secondly,  that  in  which  the  bodies  of  the  dead  were  incinerated. 

"  One  of  the  most  remarkable  'finds,'  as  regards  the  first  period 
of  the  bronze  epoch,  was  made  in  1861,  in  the  two  mounds  known 
by  the  names  of  Treenhoi  and  Kengehoi,  and  situated  near 


286  THE  AGE   OF  METALS. 

Kongeaa,  in  Jutland.  In  each  of  these  tumuli  two  people  had 
been  buried,  both  having  a  double  coffin,  made  of  magnificent 
trunks  of  oak  trees.  The  skeletons  had  been  almost  entirely 
destroyed  by  the  damp,  which,  on  the  contrary,  had  preserved  the 
garments.  These  individuals  seem  to  have  been  dressed  almost 
like  the  Scotch  ;  at  least  they  must  have  worn  a  sort  of  woollen 
petticoat,  and  bands  by  way  of  trousers,  very  like  those  worn  by 
the  warriors  depicted  in  the  Carlovingian  minatures,  and,  in 
addition,  a  cloak,  a  cap,  and  also  perhaps  a  shawl.  With  these 
garments  were  found  some  bronze  swords  in  wooden  sheaths; 
also  some  bronze  knives,  a  comb,  some  boxes,  cups,  small  wooden 
coffers,  a  tin  ball,  and,  lastly,  in  one  of  the  coffins,  a  small  flint 
arrow-head.  A  fragment  of  the  cloak  was  to  be  seen  in  the 
Palace  of  the  Champ  de  Mars  (No.  596). 

"Another  'find,'  made  a  few  miles  from  this  tumulus,  at  Hoimp, 
in  North  Schleswig,  has  also  brought  to  light  skeletons  in  oak 
coffins  together  with  bronze  implements. 

"  Discoveries  of  no  less  interest  have  been  made  in  Zealand. 
Thus,  in  1845,  in  a  tumulus  at  Hoidegaard,  near  Copenhagen,  a 
tomb  belonging  to  the  first  period  of  the  bronze  epoch  was  found ; 
it  was  searched  in  the  presence  of  some  of  the  principal  Danish 
archaeologists.  The  tomb  was  placed  at  a  distance  of  more  than 
10  feet  below  the  summit  of  the  tumulus,  and  was  built  of  stones  ; 
it  was  more  than  6  feet  in  length,  and  its  width  on  the  eastern 
side  was  about  2  feet,  and  on  the  western  side  19  inches.  The 
bottom  was  lined  with  a  layer  of  small  flint  stones,  on  which  was 
found,  in  the  first  place,  a  skin,  doubtless  that  of  an  ox,  and  above 
it,  besides  a  piece  of  tissue  containing  remains  of  human  bones,  a 
bronze  sword  with  a  wooden  sheath,  covered  with  leather,  and  in 
a  perfect  state  of  preservation ;  lastly,  a  box  containing  the  follow- 
ing articles  : — ist,  a  fragment  of  an  amber  bead  ;  2nd,  a  piece  of 
reddish  stone  ;  3rd,  a  small  shell,  which  can  be  none  other  than 
the  Conus  Mediterraneus ;  it  is  perforated  so  as  to  be  worn  as  a 
pendant  for  the  neck ;  4th,  a  fragment  of  a  flint  point,  doubtless 
an  amulet;  5th,  the  tail  of  a  serpent  (Coluber  Icevis);  6th,  a  small 
cube  of  pine  or  fir-wood  ;  and,  7th,  a  bronze  knife  with  a  convex 
blade*  and  ornamented  handle. 

"According  to  the  investigations  of  various  savants,  these  bones 


THE  BRONZE  EPOCH.  287 

belong  to  a  man,  who,  to  judge  from  the  objects  placed  by  his 
side  in  his  tomb,  must  have  been  some  distinguished  personage, 
and  perhaps  combined  the  functions  of  a  warrior  and  a  sorcerer. 
The  cube  of  pine-wood  leads  us  to  conjecture  that  that  tree  had 
not  then  completely  disappeared,  and  from  this  fact  we  may  infer 
that  the  period  at  which  the  sorcerer  in  question  lived  was  very 
remote.  It  is,  however,  possible  that  this  piece  of  pine-wood,  as 
well  as  the  shell,  were  introduced  from  some  other  country.  The 
existence  of  the  Conns  Mediterraneus  seems  to  establish  the  fact 
that  Denmark  had  already  formed  some  kind  of  connection  with 
the  Mediterranean. 

"  The  second  period  of  the  bronze  epoch  is  characterised  by  the 
custom  of  the  cremation  of  the  dead,  which  generally  took  place 
in  the  following  way  :  the  body  of  the  defunct  was  usually  placed 
together  with  his  weapons  and  ornaments,  on  the  funeral  pile, 
which  was  built  on  the  exact  spot  which  was  destined  to  form 
the  centre  of  the  tnmnlus ;  the  fire  was  then  lighted,  and,  after 
the  body  was  consumed,  the  remains  of  the  bones  were  collected 
together  in  an  urn.  The  rubbish  that  resulted  was  left  on  the 
spot,  surrounded  with  stones,  and  covered  with  earth  till  the 
tumulus  was  complete.  The  urn  which  contained  the  ashes  was 
then  placed  in  another  part  of  the  tumulus.  This  course  of  pro- 
cedure was  not  the  only  one  employed  ;  in  some  cases  the  weapons 
and  other  articles  of  adornment  were  not  placed  upon  the  funeral 
pile,  but  were  afterwards  brought  and  placed  round  the  urn. 

"  The  number  of  tombs  of  the  bronze  epoch  which  have  been 
discovered  in  Denmark  is  very  considerable.  There  are  thousands 
of  tumuli,  and  many  of  them  contain  a  large  number  of  funeral 
urns.  A  great  many  of  these  tumuli  have  been  searched  at  various 
times  and  have  produced  a  number  of  different  bronze  articles. 
The  Museum  of  Copenhagen  possesses  no  less  than  600  swords 
dating  back  to  the  bronze  epoch."  * 

Twenty  years  ago,  however,  a  very  curious  discovery  was  made 
at  Lubeck  (Pomerania),  for  it  exhibited,  so  to  speak,  in  the  same 
tomb,  the  three  modes  of  interment  belonging  to  the  pre-historic 
-epochs  of  the  Stone,  Bronze,  and  Iron  Ages. 

*  "  Le  Danemark  a  1'Exposition  Universelle  de  1867,  by  Valdemar  Schmidt," 
vol.  i.  pp.  60 — 64.  Paris,  1868. 


288  THE  AGE   OF  METALS. 

At  Waldhausen,  near  Lubeck,  a  tumulus  was  found,  which 
was  1 3  feet  9  inches  in  height.  This  tumulus  was  pulled  down  in 
horizontal  layers,  and  the  following  details  were  successively 
brought  to  light. 

At  the  top  was  a  very  ancient  burial-place,  evidently  belonging 
to  the  Iron  Age  ;  for  the  skeleton  it  contained  was  accompanied 
by  an  object  made  of  rusty  iron  and  several  earthenware  articles. 
It  was  buried  in  loose  earth. 

Underneath  this,  and  half  way  down  the  tumulus,  there  were 
some  small  enclosures  composed  of  uncemented  walls,  each  one 
containing  a  sepulchral  urn  filled  with  calcined  bones,  as  well  as 
necklaces,  hair-pins,  and  a  bronze  knife. 

Lastly,  at  the  base  of  the  tumulus  there  was  a  tomb  belonging 
to  the  Stone  Age.  It  was  formed  of  large  rough  blocks  of  stone, 
and  contained,  in  addition  to  the  bones,  some  coarse  specimens 
of  pottery,  with  flint  hatchets. 

It  is  evident  that  the  first  inhabitants  of  the  country  began  by 
building  a  tomb  on  the  bare  ground,  according  to  the  customs  of 
the  age,  and  then  covered  it  up  with  earth.  During  the  bronze 
epoch  another  burial-place  was  made  on  this  foundation,  and  a 
fresh  heap  of  earth  doubled  the  height  of  the  mound.  Lastly, 
during  the  Iron  Age,  a  dead  body  was  buried  in  a  grave  hollowed 
out  on  the  top  of  the  same  mound.  Here,  then,  we  have  a  clear 
delineation  of  the  three  different  modes  of  interment  belonging 
to  the  three  pre-historic  periods. 

In  short,  during  the  bronze  epoch,  the  dead  were  generally 
buried  in  sepulchral  chambers,  and  sometimes,  exceptionally, 
they  were  burned.  The  custom  of  funeral  feasts  still  remained 
in  full  force.  The  pious  practice  of  placing  by  the  side  of  the 
dead  body  the  instruments  or  weapons  which  the  individual 
had  been  fond  of  during  his  lifetime,  was  likewise  still  kept  up  ; 
and  it  is,  moreover,  owing  to  this  circumstance  that  archaeolo- 
gical science  is  now  enabled  to  collect  numerous  vestiges  of  the 
ancient  customs  of  these  remote  ages. 

But  we  must  call  attention  to  the  fact  that,  at  the  end  of  and 
after  this  epoch,  the  hatchets  and  instruments  which  were  placed 
in  the  tombs  were  often  of  much  smaller  dimensions  than  those 
employed  for  everyday  use.  They  were  small  and  delicately- 


THE  BRONZE  EPOCH.  289 

made  hatchets,  intended  as  votive  offerings.  Some  might,  per- 
haps, conclude  from  this  that  the  heirs,  animated  by  a  feeling  of 
economy,  had  contented  themselves  with  depositing  very  dimi- 
nutive offerings  in  the  tombs  of  the  dead.  The  human  race  was 
already  becoming  degenerate,  since  it  curtailed  its  homage  and 
its  offerings  to  the  dead  ! 

In  order  to  bring  to  a  conclusion  all  the  details  which  concern 
the  bronze  epoch,  the  question  will  naturally  arise,  what  was  the 
human  type  at  this  epoch,  and  did  it  differ  from  that  of  the  pre- 
ceding age  ?  Unfortunately,  the  positive  information  which  is 
required  for  the  elucidation  of  this  question  is  entirely  wanting ; 
this  deficiency  is  owing  to  the  extreme  rarity  of  human  bones, 
both  in  the  lacustrine  settlements  of  Switzerland,  and  also  in 


Fig.  229.— Skull  found  at  Meilen,  front  view.  Fig.  230.— Skull  found  at  Meilen,  profile  view. 

the  tombs  belonging  to  that  epoch  which  have  been  searched  in 
different  European  countries.  The  whole  of  the  lacustrine  settle- 
ments of  Switzerland  have  furnished  no  more  than  some  seven 
skeletons,  one  of  which  was  found  at  Meilen,  two  at  Nidau,  one 
at  Sutz,  one  in  the  settlement  of  Bienne,  and  two  at  Auvernier. 
The  first,  that  is  the  skeleton  found  at  Meilen,  near  Lake  Zurich, 
is  the  only  one  which  belongs  to  the  Stone  Age ;  the  six  others 
are  all  of  the  Bronze  or  Iron  Ages. 

The  skeleton  found  at  Meilen  is  that  of  a  child  ;  the  skull, 
which  is  in  a  tolerable  state  of  preservation,  although  incomplete, 
occupies,  according  to  the  observations  of  MM.  His  and  Riitimeyer, 
a  middle  place  between  the  long  and  short  heads. 

U 


290  THE  AGE  OF  METALS. 

Figs.  229  and  230,  representing  this  skull,  are  taken  from  M. 
Desor's  work,  entitled  "  Memoire  sur  les  Palafittes."  From  the 
mere  fact  that  it  is  a  child's  skull,  it  is  almost  impossible  to  make 
any  use  of  it  in  ascertaining  the  characteristic  features  of  the  race 
to  which  it  belongs  ;  for  these  features  are  not  sufficiently  marked 
at  such  an  early  age.  The  skull  is  of  a  very  elongated  shape,  that 
is  to  say,  it  belongs  to  the  dolichocephalous  type.  The  upper  part 
of  the  skull  is  flattened,  and  it  has  an  enormous  occipital  develop- 
ment ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  there  is  scarcely  any  forehead.  If 
these  special  features  might  be  generally  applied,  they  would  not 
prove  much  in  favour  of  the  intellectual  capacity  of  the  Helvetic 
nation,  or  of  its  superiority  over  the  races  of  anterior  ages ;  it 
represents,  in  fact,  a  very  low  type  of  conformation,  which,  how- 
ever, harmonises  perfectly  with  the  rough  manners  and  cruel 
practices  of  the  Gallic  tribes. 

At  the  time  of  the  discovery,  this  skull  was  accompanied  by 
various  bones  belonging  to  the  body  and  limbs,  which  show  by 
their  extraordinary  bulk  that  their  owners  were  men  of  very  large 
size.  We  have  already  remarked  upon  the  large  size  of  the  men 
existing  in  the  Stone  Age,  that  is  to  say,  at  the  time  of  the  first 
appearance  of  mankind.  Thus,  the  human  type  had  changed  but 
little  since  its  first  appearance  on  the  globe. 

The  settlement  of  Auvernier,  in  the  lake  of  Neuchatel  has,  as 
we  have  before  said,  contributed  two  skulls.  One  belonged  to  a 
child  about  eight  years  of  age,  and  the  other  to  an  adult.  The 
child's  skull  differs  very  slightly  from  the  one  found  at  Meilen. 
It  is  small,  elongated,  and  has  a  low  and  narrow  forehead.  That 
of  the  adult  presents  the  same  characteristics,  and,  in  addition,  an 
extraordinary  development  of  the  occiput,  a  feature  which  is  not 
observable  in  the  former,  probably  on  account  of  the  youth  of 
the  subject.  These  two  skulls  seem,  therefore,  to  show  that  the 
population  of  the  lacustrine  settlements  had  not  at  all  changed 
at  the  beginning  of  the  bronze  epoch. 

A  discovery  made  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Sion  has  confirmed 
these  first  ideas.  At  this  spot,  in  tombs  of  rough  stone,  there 
were  found  some  bodies  bent  into  a  contracted  position,  and 
accompanied  by  certain  bronze  objects.  According  to  MM.  His 
and  Carl  Vogt,  the  skulls  found  at  Sion  agree  tolerably  well  with 


THE    BRONZE  EPOCH.  291 

those  discovered  at  Meilen  and  Auvernier ;  and,  in  addition  to  this, 
the  same  shape  is  perpetuated  down  to  our  own  days  in  German 
Switzerland,  where  it  strongly  predominates,  and  constitutes 
what  is  called  the  Helvetic  type. 

The  data  which  have  been  collected  up  to  the  present  time  are 
not  sufficient  to  enable  us  to  make  any  positive  assertion  respect- 
ing the  development  of  the  intelligence  of  man  during  the  bronze 
epoch.  The  few  skulls  which  have  been  recovered  are  always 
in  an  incomplete  state,  and  do  not  justify  us  in  forming  any  exact 
opinion  on  this  matter.  But  when  we  are  considering  the  degree 
of  intelligence  possessed  by  our  ancestors  at  this  period  of  man's 
development,  there  are  things  which  will  enlighten  us  far  better 
than  any  fragments  of  bones  or  any  remains  of  skeletons ;  these 
are  the  works  which  have  been  executed  by  their  hands.  The 
fine  arts  had  already  begun  to  throw  out  promising  germs,  indus- 
trial skill  had  become  an  established  fact,  agriculture  was  in  full 
practice,  and  bronze  was  made  to  adapt  itself  to  all  the  caprices 
and  all  the  boldest  ideas  of  the  imagination.  What  more  can  be 
necessary  to  prove  that  man,  at  this  epoch,  was  already  com- 
paratively far  advanced  in  intellectual  culture  ? 
~"Tn  concluding  our  account  of  the  bronze  epoch,  the  question 
naturally  arises  whether  it  is  possible  to  form  any  estimate  of  the 
exact  space  of  time  embraced  by  this  period  of  man's  history. 
We  shall  endeavour  here  to  give,  not  the  solution  of  the  problem, 
but  merely  an  idea  of  the  way  in  which  scientific  men  have 
entered  on  the  question. 

Marlot,  the  Swiss  archaeologist  and  naturalist,  who  has  written  V 
a  great  deal  upon  the  subject  of  the  lacustrine  settlements,  was    \ 
the  first  to  endeavour  to  estimate  the  duration  of  the  Stone  Age 
as  well  as  that  of  the  Bronze  Epoch,  and  the  following  is  the 
way  in  which  he  set  about  it. 

In  the  neighbourhood  of  Villeneuve  there  is  a  cone  or  hillock 
formed  of  gravel  and  alluvitim,  slowly  deposited  there  by  the 
stream  of  the  Tiniere  which  falls  at  this  spot  into  the  lake  of 
Geneva.  This  cone  was  cut  in  two,  to  lay  down  the  railway 
which  runs  along  the  side  of  the  lake.  Its  interior  structure  was 
thus  laid  bare,  and  appeared  to  be  perfectly  regular,  a  proof  that 
it  had  been  gradually  formed  during  a  long  course  of  ages.  There 

U   2 


292  THE  AGE   OF  METALS. 

were  three  layers  of  vegetable  earth  placed  at  different  depths 
between  the  deposits  of  alluvium,  each  of  which  double  layers 
had  in  its  turn  formed  the  outer  surface  of  the  cone. 

The  first  layer  was  found  at  a  depth  of  3  feet  6  inches  from  the 
top,  and  was  4  to  6  inches  thick.  In  it  were  found  some  relics 
of  the  Roman  epoch. 

The  second,  situated  5  feet  3  inches  lower,  measured  6  inches 
in  depth,  and  was  recognised  as  belonging  to  the  Bronze  Age  ;  it 
contained  a  pair  of  bronze  pincers  and  some  fragments  of  un- 
glazed  earthenware. 

The  lower  bed  lay  at  a  depth  of  18  feet  from  the  top,  and  varied 
in  thickness  from  6  to  7  inches.  It  contained  some  rough  earthen- 
ware, charcoal,  and  animal  bones,  all  pointing  to  the  Stone  Age, 
but  to  the  latest  times  of  that  period. 

After  having  carefully  examined  these  different  beds  and  ascer- 
tained the  regular  structure  of  the  cone,  Morlot  fancied  that  he 
could  calculate  approximately  the  age  of  each  of  them.  He  took 
for  his  base  of  operations  two  historical  dates :  that  of  the 
entrance  of  the  Romans  into  Helvetia,  fifty-eight  years  before 
Christ,  and  that  of  their  decisive  expulsion  towards  the  end  of 
the  fifth  century  of  the  Christian  era.  By  comparing  these  two 
dates  he  came  to  the  conclusion  that  the  Roman  layer  was  at  the 
most  eighteen  and  at  the  least  thirteen  centuries  old.  Then  re- 
marking that  since  that  epoch  the  cone  had  increased  3  feet 
6  inches,  and  always  going  upon  the  hypothesis  that  the  increase 
was  the  same  as  in  subsequent  ages,  he  came  to  the  conclusion 
that  the  bed  corresponding  with  the  bronze  epoch  was  at  least 
2,900  and  at  the  most  4,200  years  old  ;  and  that  the  layer 
belonging  to  the  Stone  Age,  forming  the  entire  remainder  of  the 
cone,  was  from  4,700  to  10,000  years  old. 

Another  calculation,  the  conclusions  of  which  agree  tolerably 
/well  with  these,  was  made  by  M.  Gillieron,  professor  at  the  college 
(of  Neuveville.  We  have  already  said  that  the  remains  of  a  pile- 
work  belonging  to  the  Stone  Age  was  discovered  near  the  bridge 
of  Thiele,  between  the  lakes  of  Bienne  and  Neuchatel.  It  is  evi- 
dent that  the  valley,  the  narrowest  part  of  which  was  occupied  by 
the  lacustrine  settlement,  was  formerly  almost  entirely  under 
water,  for  below  this  point  it  suddenly  widens  out  and  retains 


THE  BRONZE  EPOCH.  293 

these  proportions  as  far  as  the  lake  of  Bienne.  The  lake  must, 
therefore,  have  retired  slowly  and  regularly,  as  may  be  ascer- 
tained from  an  examination  of  the  mud  deposited  by  it.  If, 
therefore,  we  know  its  annual  coefficient  of  retreat,  that  is  to  say, 
how  much  it  retired  every  year,  we  should  be  able  to  estimate 
with  a  sufficient  degree  of  approximation  the  age  of  the  settle- 
ment of  the  bridge  of  Thiele. 

Now  there  is,  not  far  from  the  lake,  at  about  1,230  feet  from 
the  present  shore,  an  old  abbey,  that  of  Saint-Jean,  which  is 
known  to  have  been  built  about  the  year  noo.  A  document  of 
that  time  mentions  that  the  cloister  had  the  right  of  fishing  in  a 
certain  part  of  the  lake  ;  and  there  is  some  likelihood  that  it  was 
built  on  the  edge  of  the  lake  ;  a  supposition  which  naturally 
presents  itself  to  the  mind.  The  lake,  then,  must  have  retired 
1,230  feet  in  750  years.  This  granted,  M.  Gillieron  easily  calcu- 
lated the  time  which  would  be  taken  for  a  retreat  of  11,072  feet, 
this  number  representing  the  distance  from  the  present  shore  to 
the  entrance  of  the  defile  which  contains  the  settlement  of  the 
bridge  of  Thiele.  He  found  by  this  means  that  the  settlement 
is  at  least  6,750  years  old,  a  figure  which  confirms  those  of 
Morlot. 

The  preceding  calculations  assign  to  the  Stone  Age  in  Switzer- 
land an  antiquity  of  6,000  to  7,000  years  before  the  Christian 
era,  and  to  the  bronze  epoch  an  antiquity  of  4,000  years  before 
the  same  era.  There  is  still  much  uncertainty  in  the  figures 
thus  given  to  satisfy  public  curiosity ;  but  there  is  at  least  one 
fact  which  is  altogether  unquestionable — that  these  calculations 
liave  dealt  a  fatal  blow  to  recognised  chronology. 


II. 

THE   IRON  EPOCH. 


THE  IRON  EPOCH.  297 


CHAPTER   I. 

Essential  Characteristics  of  the  Iron  Epoch — Preparation  of  Iron  in  Pre-historic 
Times — Discovery  of  Silver  and  Lead — Earthenware  made  on  the  Potter's 
Wheel — Invention  of  Coined  Money. 

WITHOUT  metals,  as  we  have  said  in  one  of  the  preceding  chapters, 
man  must  have  remained  for  ever  in  a  state  of  barbarism.  To 
this  we  must  add,  that  the  civilisation  of  man  has  made  progress 
just  in  proportion  to  the  degree  of  perfection  he  has  arrived  at  in 
the  working  of  the  metals  and  alloys  which  he  has  had  at  his  dis- 
posal. The  knowledge  and  use  of  bronze  communicated  a  strong 
impulse  to  nascent  civilisation,  and  was  the  means  of  founding 
the  first  human  communities.  But  bronze  is  far  from  possessing 
all  the  qualities  which  ought  to  belong  to  metals  when  applied 
to  various  industrial  purposes.  This  alloy  is  neither  hard  nor 
elastic  enough  to  make  good  tools  ;  and,  in  addition  to  this, 
it  is  composed  of  metals  which  in  a  natural  state  are  very  scarce. 
Man  requires  a  metal  which  is  cheap,  hard,  easy  to  work,  and 
adapted  to  all  the  requirements  which  are  exacted  by  industrial 
skill,  which  is  so  manifold  in  its  works  and  wants. 

A  metal  of  this  sort  was  at  length  discovered,  and  a  new  era 
opened  for  the  future  of  men.  They  learned  how  to  extract  from 
its  ore  iron — the  true  king  of  metals,  as  it  may  well  be  called — • 
on  account  of  its  inestimable  qualities.  From  the  day  when  iron 
was  first  placed  at  man's  disposal  civilisation  began  to  make  its 
longest  strides,  and  as  the  working  of  this  metal  improved,  so 
the  dominion  of  man — his  faculties  and  his  intellectual  activity — 
likewise  enlarged  in  the  same  proportion. 

It  is,  therefore,  with  good  reason  that  the  name  of  Iron  Epoch 
has  been  given  to  the  latest  period  of  the  development  of  primi- 
tive man,  and  it  is  not  surprising  that  the  last  portion  of  the  iron 
epoch  formed  the  commencement  of  historical  times.  After  this 
period,  in  fact,  man  ceased  to  live  in  that  half-savage  state,  the 
most  striking  features  of  which  we  have  endeavoured  to  pourtray. 


298  THE  AGE   OF  METALS. 

As  the  use  of  iron  essentially  characterises  this  epoch  in  the 
history  of  mankind,  we  ought  to  give  an  account  of  the  processes 
of  manufacture  employed  by  the  primitive  metallurgists,  that  is 
to  say,  we  should  enquire  how  they  proceeded  at  this  epoch  to 
extract  iron  from  its  native  ore. 

The  art  of  metallurgy  had  made  great  progress  during  the 
bronze  epoch.  There  were  at  that  time  considerable  workshops 
for  the  preparation  of  bronze,  and  small  foundries  for  melting  and 
casting  this  alloy.  When  once  formed  into  weapons,  instruments, 
and  tools,  bronze  objects  were  fashioned  by  artisans  of  various 
professions.  The  moulder's  art  had  already  attained  to  a  high 
degree  of  perfection,  a  fact  which  is  proved  by  the  gigantic  bronze 
objects  which  we  have  already  mentioned,  as  well  as  the  castings, 
so  many  of  which  have  been  represented  in  the  preceding  pages. 
The  phenomenon  of  tempering  was  well  known,  that  is  the  prin- 
cipal modifications  which  are  experienced  by  bronze  in  its  cooling, 
whether  slow  or  sudden.  It  was  well  known  how  to  vary  the 
proportions  of  the  tin  and  copper  so  as  to  obtain  bronze  of  different 
degrees  of  hardness.  All  the  means  of  soldering  were  also  familiarly 
known.  Damascening  was  introduced  in  order  to  diversify  the 
appearance  of  wrought  metallic  objects.  The  cutting  qualities  of 
instruments  were  increased  by  forging  them  and  consolidating 
them  by  hammering.  They  had  even  gone  so  far  as  to  discover 
the  utility  of  the  addition  of  certain  mineral  salts  in  the  founder's 
crucible  in  order  to  facilitate  the  fusion  of  the  bronze. 

Thus  at  the  end  of  the  bronze  epoch  the  knowledge  of  metals 
had  attained  to  a  comparatively  considerable  development. 
Hence  we  may  conclude  that  the  substitution  of  iron  for  bronze 
took  place  without  any  great  difficulty.  Owing  to  the  natural 
progress  and  successive  improvements  made  in  metallurgic  art, 
the  blacksmith  made  his  appearance  on  the  scene  and  took  the 
place  of  the  bronze-moulder. 

What,  however,  was  the  process  which  enabled  our  earliest 
metallurgists  to  extract  iron  from  its  native  ore  ? 

Native  iron,  that  is  metallic  iron  in  a  natural  state,  is  eminently 
rare  ;  except  in  aerolites  it  is  scarcely  ever  found.  According  to 
Pallas,  the  Russian  naturalist,  certain  Siberian  tribes  have  suc- 
ceeded, with  a  great  amount  of  labour,  in  obtaining  from  the 


THE  IRON  EPOCH.  299 

aerolites  which  have  been  met  with  in  their  country  small  quan- 
tities of  iron,  which  they  have  made  into  knives.  The  same 
practice  existed  among  the  Laplanders.  Lastly,  we  are  told  by 
Amerigo  Vespucci  that  in  the  fifteenth  century  the  Indians  at  the 
mouth  of  the  La  Plata  river  were  in  the  habit  of  making  arrow- 
heads and  other  instruments  with  iron  extracted  from  aerolites.* 

But,  as  we  hardly  need  observe,  stones  of  this  kind  do  not  often 
drop  down  from  the  skies,  and  their  employment  is  of  too  acci- 
dental a  character  ever  to  have  suggested  to  men  the  right  mode 
of  the  extraction  of  iron.  It  is,  therefore,  almost  certain  that  the 
first  iron  used  was  extracted  from  its  ore  just  like  copper  and  tin, 
that  is,  by  the  reduction  of  its  oxide  under  the  influence  of  heat 
and  charcoal.  In  opposition  to  this  explanation,  some  bring  for- 
ward as  an  objection  the  prodigiously  high  temperature  which  is 
required  for  the  fusion  of  iron,  or,  in  fact,  the  almost  impossibility 
of  melting  iron  in  the  primitive  furnaces.  But  the  fusion  of  iron 
was  in  no  way  necessary  for  the  extraction  of  this  metal ;  and  if 
it  had  been  requisite  to  procure  liquid  iron,  primitive  industrial 
skill  would  never  have  succeeded  in  doing  it.  All  that  was  neces- 
sary was  so  to  reduce  the  oxide  of  iron  as  to  obtain  the  metal  in  a 
spongy  state  without  any  fusion.  The  hammering  of  this  spongy 
mass  when  in  a  red-hot  state  soon  converted  it  into  a  real  bar  of  iron, 

If  we  cast  a  glance  on  the  metallurgic  industry  of  some  of  the 
semi-barbarous  nations  of  ancient  times,  we  shall  find,  as  regards 
the  extraction  of  iron,  a  process  in  use  among  them  which  will 
fully  justify  the  idea  we  have  formed  of  the  way  in  which  iron 
must  have  been  obtained  in  primitive  times.  Gmelin,  the  natu- 
ralist, during  his  travels  in  Tartary,  was  a  witness  of  the  elemen- 
tary process  which  was  employed  by  these  northern  tribes  in  pro- 
curing iron.  There,  every  one  prepares  his  own  iron  just  as  every 
household  might  make  its  own  bread.  The  furnace  for  the  ex- 
traction of  iron  is  placed  in  the  kitchen,  and  is  nothing  but  a  mere 
cavity,  9  inches  cube,  which  is  filled  up  with  iron-ore  ;  the  furnace 
is  surmounted  by  an  earthen  chimney,  and  there  is  a  door  in  front 
of  the  furnace  for  introducing  the  ore,  this  door  being  kept  closed 

*  Details  as  to  the  relation  of  the  Stone  Age  to  the  Bronze  and  Iron  Ages  may 
be  found  in  "  Researches  into  the  Early  History  of  Mankind,"  by  Edward  B.  Tylor. 
Chap.  VIII.,  "  Pre-Historic  Times,"  by  Sir  J.  Lubbock,  Chaps.  I.  and  II. 


300  THE  AGE   OF  METALS. 

during  the  smelting  process.  In  an  orifice  at  the  side  the  nozzle  of 
a  pair  of  bellows  is  inserted,  which  are  blown  by  one  man  whilst 
another  introduces  the  ore  and  charcoal  in  successive  layers.  The 
furnace  never  holds  more  than  3  yz  Ibs.  of  ore  for  each  operation. 
When  this  quantity  has  been  placed  in  the  furnace,  in  small  pieces 
one  after  the  other,  all  that  is  done  is  keeping  up  the  action  of  the 
bellows  for  some  minutes.  Lastly,  the  door  of  the  furnace  is 
opened,  and  the  ashes  and  other  products  of  combustion  having 
been  drawn  out,  a  small  mass  of  spongy  iron  is  found,  which  pro- 
ceeds from  the  reduction  of  the  oxide  of  iron  by  means  of  the 
charcoal,  without  the  metal  being  in  a  state  of  fusion,  properly  so 
called.  This  small  lump  of  iron  was  cleaned  with  a  piece  of  wood, 
and  was  put  on  one  side  to  be  subsequently  welded  to  others,  and 
hammered  several  times  when  in  a  red-hot  state  ;  and  by  means 
of  several  forgings  the  whole  mass  was  converted  into  a  single  bar. 

This  same  process  for  the  extraction  of  iron  from  its  natural 
oxide,  without  fusion,  is  practised  by  the  negroes  of  Fouta-Djallon, 
in  Senegal. 

After  having  become  acquainted  with  the  elementary  process 
which  is  practised  by  the  semi-barbarous  tribes  of  the  present  day, 
we  shall  find  but  little  difficulty  in  understanding  all  that  Morlot, 
the  Swiss  naturalist,  has  said  as  to  the  iron-furnaces  of  pre-historic 
man,  and  shall  probably  agree  in  his  opinions  on  the  subject. 
Morlot,  in  his  "Memoires  sur  1'Archeologie  de  la  Suisse,"  has  de- 
scribed the  vestiges  of  the  pre-historic  furnaces  intended  for  the 
preparation  of  iron,  which  were  found  by  him  in  Carinthia  (Austria). 

According  to  M.  Morlot,  the  plan  adopted  for  extracting  iron 
from  its  oxide  in  pre-historic  times  was  as  follows  : — On  the  side 
of  a  slope  exposed  to  the  wind,  a  hole  was  hollowed  out.  The 
bottom  of  this  hole  was  filled  up  with  a  heap  of  wood,  on  which 
was  placed  a  layer  of  ore.  This  layer  of  ore  was  covered  by  a 
second  heap  of  wood  ;  then,  taking  advantage  of  a  strong  breeze 
rising,  which  had  to  perform  the  functions  of  the  bellows,  the 
lowest  pile  of  wood  was  kindled  at  its  base.  The  wood  by  its 
combustion  was  converted  into  charcoal,  and  this  charcoal,  under 
the  influence  of  heat,  soon  reduced  the  iron  oxide  to  a  metallic 
state.  When  the  combustion  had  come  to  an  end,  a  few  pieces 
of  iron  were  found  among  the  ashes. 


THE  IRON  EPOCH.  301 

By  increasing  the  size  of  the  apparatus  used,  far  more  consider- 
able results  were  of  course  obtained.  In  Dalecarlia  (Sweden), 
M.  Morlot  found  smelting-houses,  so  to  speak,  in  which  the  original 
hole,  of  which  we  have  just  been  speaking,  is  surrounded  with 
stones  so  as  to  form  a  sort  of  circular  receptacle.  In  this  rough 
stone  crucible  layers  of  charcoal  and  iron-ore  were  placed  in  suc- 
cession. After  having  burnt  for  some  hours,  the  heap  was  searched 
over  and  the  spongy  iron  was  found  mixed  with  the  ashes  at  the 
bottom  of  the  furnace. 

The  slowness  of  the  operation,  and  the  inconsiderable  metallic 
result  induced  them  to  increase  the  size  of  the  stone  receptacle, 
They  first  gave  to  it  a  depth  of  7  feet,  and  then  of  1 3  feet,  and,  at 
the  same  time,  coated  the  walls  of  it  with  clay.  They  thus  had  at 
their  disposal  a  kind  of  vast  circular  crucible,  in  which  they  placed 
successive  layers  of  iron-ore  and  wood  or  charcoal. 

In  this  altogether  elementary  arrangement  no  use  was  made,  as 
it  seems,  of  the  bellows.  This  amounts  to  stating  that  the  primitive 
method  of  smelting  iron  was  not,  as  is  commonly  thought,  an  adapta- 
tion of  the  Catalan  furnace.  This  latter  process,  which,  even  in  the 
present  time,  is  made  use  of  in  the  Pyrenean  smelting  works,  does 
not  dateback  further  than  thetimesof  the  Roman  empire.  It  is  based 
on  the  continual  action  of  the  bellows;  whilst  in  the  pre-historic  fur- 
naces this  instrument,  we  will  again  repeat,  was  never  employed. 

These  primitive  furnaces  applied  to  the  reduction  of  iron-ore, 
traces  of  which  had  been  recognised  by  Morlot,  the  naturalist,  in 
Austria  and  Sweden,  have  lately  been  discovered  in  considerable 
numbers  in  the  canton  of  Berne  by  M.  Quiquerez,  a  scientific 
mining  engineer.  They  consist  of  cylindrical  excavations,  of  no 
great  depth,  dug  out  on  the  side  of  a  hill,  and  surmounted  by  a 
clay  funnel  of  conical  form.  Wood-charcoal  was  the  fuel  employed 
for  charging  the  furnaces,  for  stores  of  this  combustible  are  always 
found  lying  round  the  ancient  smelting  works. 

In  an  extremely  curious  memoir,  which  was  published  in  1866 
by  the  Jura  Society  of  Emulation,  under  the  title  of  "Recherches 
sur  les  anciennes  Forges  du  Jura  Bernois,"  M.  Quiquerez  summed 
up  the  results  of  his  protracted  and  minute  investigations.  A  few 
extracts  from  this  valuable  work  will  bring  to  our  knowledge  the 
real  construction  of  the  furnaces  used  by  pre-historic  man  ;  400 


302  THE  AGE   OF  METALS. 

of  these  furnaces  having  been  discovered  by  M.  Quiquerez  in  the 
district  of  the  Bernese  Jura. 

We  will,  however,  previously  mention  that  M.  Quiquerez  had 
represented,  or  materialised,  as  it  were,  the  results  of  his  interest- 
ing labours,  by  constructing  a  model  in  miniature  of  a  siderurgical 
establishment  belonging  to  the  earliest  iron  epoch.  This  curious 
specimen  of  workmanship  showed  the  clay-furnace  placed  against 
the  side  of  a  hill,  the  heaps  of  charcoal,  the  scoriae,  the  hut  used 
as  a  dwelling  by  the  workmen,  the  furnace  implements — in  short, 
all  the  details  which  formed  the  result  of  the  patient  researches 
of  the  learned  Swiss  engineer. 

M.  Quiquerez  had  prepared  this  interesting  model  of  the  ancient 
industrial  pursuits  of  man  with  a  view  of  exhibiting  it  in  the 
Exposition  Universelle  of  1 867,  together  with  the  very  substances, 
productions,  and  implements  which  he  had  found  in  his  explora- 
tions in  the  Jura.  But  the  commission  appointed  for  selecting 
objects  for  admission  refused  to  grant  him  the  modest  square-yard 
of  area  which  he  required  for  placing  his  model.  How  ridiculous 
it  seems  !  In  the  immense  Champ  de  Mars,  in  which  so  many 
useless  and  absurd  objects  perfectly  swarmed,  one  square  yard  of 
space  was  refused  for  one  of  the  most  curious  productions  which 
was  ever  turned  out  by  the  skilful  hands  of  any  savant ! 

The  result  of  this  unintelligent  refusal  was  that  M.  Quiquerez's 
model  did  not  make  its  appearance  in  the  Exposition  Universelle 
in  the  Champ  de  Mars,  and  that  it  was  missing  from  the  curious 
Gallery  of  the  History  of  Labour,  which  called  forth  so  much  of 
the  attention  of  the  public.  For  our  readers,  however,  it  will  not 
be  altogether  lost.  M.  Quiquerez  has  been  good  enough  to  forward 
to  us  from  Bellerive,  where  he  resides  (near  Delemont,  canton  of 
Basle,  Switzerland),  a  photograph  of  his  curious  model  of  a  pre- 
historic workshop  for  the  preparation  of  iron.  From  this  photo- 
graph we  have  designed  the  annexed  plate,  representing  a  primi- 
tive furnace  for  tJie  extraction  of  iron. 

This  composition  reproduces  with  tolerable  accuracy  the  model 
in  relief  constructed  by  the  author.  The  furnace  is  shown  ;  it  is 
nothing  but  a  simple  cavity  surmounted  by  a  conical  chimney- 
funnel,  and  placed  against  the  side  of  a  hill.  Steps  made  of 
rough  stone,  placed  on  each  side  of  the  mound,  enable  the  work- 


THE  IRON  EPOCH.  3°3 

men  to  mount  to  the  summit.  The  height  of  the  funnel  is  about 
9  feet.  At  the  side  of  the  furnace  stands  the  hut  for  the 
labourers,  constructed  of  a  number  of  round  poles  placed  side  by 
side ;  for  centuries  past  huts  of  this  kind  have  been  erected  in 
almost  every  country. 

On  the  right,  in  the  foreground,  we  may  notice  a  heap  of  char- 
coal intended  to  be  placed  in  the  furnace  in  order  to  reduce  the  ore  ; 
on  the  left,  there  is  the  store  of  ore  called  in  ironworks  the  ore-pen. 
The  provision  of  iron-ore  is  enclosed  between  four  wooden  slabs, 
forming  a  quadrangular  space.  In  the  centre  are  the  scoriae 
which  result  from  the  operations  carried  on.  A  workman  is 
extracting  the  cake  of  spongy  iron  from  the  ashes  of  the  furnace  ; 
another  is  hammering  on  the  anvil  a  piece  of  iron  drawn  from 
the  furnace  in  order  to  forge  it  into  a  bar.  Round  the  furnace 
various  implements  are  scattered  about,  such  as  the  anvil,  the 
pincers,  the  hammer,  &c.  All  the  instruments  are  designed  from 
various  specimens  found  by  the  author. 

After  these  explanations,  we  may  now  give  some  extracts  from 
M.  Quiquerez's  work,  and  we  trust  our  readers  will  find  no  difficulty 
in  comprehending  the  details  given  by  the  learned  engineer, 
describing  the  primitive  furnaces  for  the  extraction  of  iron  which 
he  discovered  in  the  Bernese  Jura. 

M.  Quiquerez  has  remarked  two  kinds  of  primitive  furnaces 
for  the  fabrication  of  iron,  or,  rather,  two  stages  of  improvement 
in  their  construction.  The  first  sort,  that  which  the  author  con- 
siders as  dating  back  to  the  most  remote  antiquity,  is  not  so 
numerous  as  the  others  ;  the  second  kind  form  the  largest  number 
of  those  which  he  has  explored. 

"  Furnaces  of  the  first  kind,"  says  M.  Quiquerez,  "  consisted  of 
nothing  but  a  small  cylindrical  excavation  of  no  great  regularity  in 
shape,  with  a  cup-shaped  bottom,  hollowed  out  in  the  side  of  a 
hill  so  as  to  give  more  natural  height  on  one  side  ;  the  front  of  the 
furnace  was  closed  up  by  fire-proof  clay,  supported  with  stones. 
This  cavity  was  plastered  over  with  4  to  6  inches  of  clay,  generally 
of  a  whitish  colour,  which  became  red  after  coming  in  contact  with 
the  fire.  These  smelting-furnaces  were  not  more  than  12  to  18 
inches  in  depth,  as  seemed  to  be  shown  by  the  upper  edges  being 
rounded  and  more  or  less  scoriated.  The  front,  which  was  always 


304  THE  AGE   OF  METALS. 

more  or  less  broken,  had  an  opening  at  its  base  to  admit  a  current 
of  air,  and  to  allow  the  workmen  to  deal  with  the  melted  material ; 
but  this  opening  seems  to  show  that  the  piece  of  metal  which  had 
been  formed  during  the  operation  must  have  been  extracted  by 
breaking  in  the  front. 

"  The  second  kind  of  furnace,  which  is  by  far  the  most  numer- 
ously found  and  widely  distributed,  is,  in  fact,  nothing  but  an 
improvement  of  that  which  preceded  it,  the  edges  of  the  furnace 
or  crucible  being  considerably  raised  in  height.  They  vary  in 
depth  from  75^  to  8  feet,  with  a  diameter  of  most  irregular  dimen- 
sions, from  1 8  inches  upwards,  and  a  thickness  of  12  inches  to  7 
feet.  They  are  likewise  formed  of  fire-proof  clay,  and  their 
average  capacity  is  about  25  gallons. 

"  The  constructor,  having  dug  out  in  the  side  of  the  hill  an 
opening  circular,  or  rather  semicircular,  at  the  base,  with  a 
diameter  nearly  three  times  as  wide  as  the  future  furnace, 
arranged  in  the  centre  of  this  hole  a  kind  of  furnace-bed  made 
of  plastic  clay  at  bottom,  and  covered  with  a  layer  of  fire-proof 
clay  on  the  top  of  it.  The  bed  of  the  furnace,  which  lies  on  the 
natural  and  hardly  levelled  earth,  is,  generally  speaking,  not  so 
thick  as  the  side  walls,  which  are  formed  of  sandy  or  siliceous 
clay,  always  fire-proof  on  the  inside,  but  sometimes  of  a  more 
plastic  nature  on  the  exterior ;  the  empty  space  left  between  the 
walls  of  the  furnace  and  the  solid  ground  round  it  was  filled  up 
with  earth  and  other  material.  In  front  the  furnace  was  enclosed 
by  a  rough  wall,  sometimes  straight  and  sometimes  curving,  built, 
without  mortar,  of  rough  limestone,  and  dressed  with  earth  to 
fill  up  the  gaps.  In  front  of  the  furnace  an  opening  was  made 
in  this  wall,  taking  its  rise  a  few  inches  above  the  bottom  of  the 
furnace  and  increasing  in  size  in  an  outward  direction,  so  as  to 
enable  the  workmen  to  see  into  and  work  in  the  furnace. 

"  The  work  thus  commenced  was  carried  up  to  the  requisite 
height ;  and  when  the  excavation  in  the  side  of  the  hill  was  not 
lofty  enough,  the  dome  of  the  furnace  was  raised  by  placing 
buttresses  against  the  fire-clay,  so  as  to  prevent  the  earth  falling  in. 
When  these  furnaces  were  established  on  almost  level  ground,  as 
is  sometimes  the  case,  they  form  a  truncated  cone,  with  a  base 
varying  in  size  according  to  the  height  of  the  apparatus. 


THE  IRON  EPOCH.  305 

"The  furnace  was  not  always  built  upright ;  it  often  deviated  from 
the  perpendicular,  leaning  to  one  side  or  the  other  to  an  extent  as 
considerable  as  its  own  diameter,  but  no  constant  rule  as  to  this  can 
be  recognised.  The  internal  shape  was  just  as  irregular,  changing 
from  circular  to  oval  without  any  apparent  motive  beyond  want  of 
care  in  the  workman.  The  crucibles  or  furnaces  are  sometimes  larger 
at  the  top  than  at  the  bottom,  and  sometimes  these  proportions  are 
reversed,  but  always  with  extreme  irregularity.  We  have  noticed 
some  which  at  a  point  10  or  12  inches  above  the  crucible  were  per- 
ceptibly contracted  on  three  sides,  thus  representing  the  first  rudi- 
ments of  the  appearance  of  our  modern  furnaces.  But  this,  perhaps, 
was  nothing  but  a  caprice  on  the  part  of  the  builder. 

"  The  furnace  thus  being  established,  the  wood  was  withdrawn 
which  had  formed  the  cone,  if,  indeed,  any  had  been  used,  and  at 
the  hole  made  at  the  base  of  the  crucible  a  clod  of  fire-clay  some 
inches  in  height  was  placed,  so  as  to  form  a  dam,  and  to  confine  in 
the  crucible  the  molten  or  soft  metal ;  the  scoriae,  being  of  a  lighter 
nature  and  floating  at  the  top,  made  their  escape  over  the  top  of 
the  dam.  As  the  latter  were  not  very  liquid,  their  issue  was  pro- 
moted by  means  of  pokers  or  wooden  poles,  perhaps  damped,  with 
which  also  the  metal  was  stirred  in  the  crucible. 

"In  neither  of  these  two  kinds  of  furnaces  do  we  find  any  trace  of 
bellows,  and  a  more  or  less  strong  draught  must  have  been  procured 
through  the  opening  made  for  the  escape  of  the  scoriae,  according 
to  the  elevation  of  the  dome  of  the  furnace.  The  limestones  which 
have  been  found  in  certain  furnaces  were  probably  employed  with 
a  view  of  increasing  the  draught ;  they  doubtless  belonged  to  the 
upper  part  of  the  furnace,  where  they  had  been  fixed  so  as  to  add 
height  to  the  orifice.  This  rudimentary  plan  must  have  been  like- 
wise used  in  the  earliest  crucibles.  The  mode  of  obtaining  a 
draught  which  we  have  just  pointed  out  is  indicated  most  plainly 
by  the  scorification  of  the  walls  of  the  furnace  on  the  side  opposite 
to  the  air  passage  ;  this  side  has  evidently  experienced  a  more 
intense  heat,  whilst  on  the  other  the  walls  are  much  less  affected 
by  the  fire,  and,  in  some  cases,  pieces  of  the  mineral  still  remain 
in  a  pasty  or  semi-molten  state,  just  as  they  were  when  the  work 
of  the  furnace  ceased.  .  .  . 

"  The  absence  of  any  machine  in  the  shape  of  bellows  in  the 

x 


306  THE  AGE   OF  METALS. 

ancient  metal  works  of  the  Jura  appears  all  the  more  remarkable  as 
these  implements  were  known  both  to  the  Greeks  and  Romans  ; 
hence  we  may  at  least  infer,  not  only  that  these  nations  did  not  in- 
troduce the  art  of  iron-working  into  the  Jura,  but  that  it  must  have 
existed  at  a  much  earlier  period.  It  must  also  be  remarked  that  the 
openings  in  the  furnaces  are  not  placed  in  the  direction  of  the  winds 
prevailing  in  the  country — a  plan  which  might  have  increased  the 
draught — but  are  made  quite  at  hazard,  just  as  the  nature  of  the 
spot  rendered  the  construction  of  the  furnace  more  easy. 

" ....  In  respect  to  fuel  it  must  be  remarked  that  in  all  the 
siderurgical  establishments  which  we  have  discovered,  certain  fea- 
tures indicate  that  wood  carbonised  in  a  stack  was  exclusively  used 
as  fuel.  The  furnaces  are  too  small  for  the  employment  of  rough 
wood ;  added  to  this,  charcoal  stores  are  placed  near  the  furnaces  ; 
and  charcoal  burnt  in  a  stack  is  constantly  met  with  all  round  the 
sites,  in  the  scoriae,  and  all  the  debris.  We  must,  besides,  mention 
the  discovery,  at  Bellelay,  of  a  charcoal  store  8  feet  in  diameter, 
situated  under  a  compact  bed  of  peat  20  feet  in  thickness.  It  was 
established  on  the  solid  earth,  anterior  to  the  formation  of  the  peat. 
Now,  from  this  very  peat  a  parcel  of  coins  belonging  to  the 
fifteenth  century  was  recovered,  over  which  only  2  feet  of  peat 
had  grown  in  a  period  of  400  years.  There,  too,  at  a  depth  of 
9  feet,  were  found  the  scattered  bones  of  a  horse,  with  the  foot 
still  shod  with  those  undulating  edged  shoes  with  elongated  and 
strongly  punched  holes,  in  which  were  fitted  the  ends  of  nails  of 
the  shape  of  a  T,  the  heads  of  which  were  conical.  This  kind  of 
shoe  is  found  in  the  Celtic  settlements,  the  villages,  habitations, 
and  ironworks,  also  in  the  pasturages  and  forests  of  the  country, 
but  rarely  in  the  Roman  camps  ;  in  the  latter  they  are  always  in 
less  number  than  the  wilder  metallic  shoes,  which  are  larger,  and 
furnished  with  a  groove  indicating  the  line  in  which  the  nail- 
holes  were  punched.  The  calculations  which  have  been  made 
from  the  discovery  of  the  coins  of  the  fifteenth  century  (A.D.  1478) 
would  give  an  antiquity  of  at  least  twenty  to  twenty-four  cen- 
turies to  the  horse-shoe  we  have  just  mentioned,  for  the  animal 
must  have  died  and  been  devoured  on  the  then  existing  surface  of 
the  ground,  and  could  not  have  been  buried  in  the  peat,  as  the 
bones,  instead  of  lying  grouped  together,  were  dispersed  in 


THE  IRON  EPOCH.  307 

every  direction.  These  same  calculations  would  carry  back  the 
date  of  the  charcoal-store  to  an  era  4,000  years  ago. 

"  Owing  to  the  imperfection  of  the  furnaces,  the  quantity  of 
charcoal  used  must  have  been  quadruple  the  present  consumption 
for  the  same  results.  The  metal,  as  it  was  extracted  from  the 
ore,  fell  down  into  the  bottom  of  the  crucible.  In  proportion  as 
the  mass  of  metal  increased,  a  workman,  with  a  poker  made  of 
damp  green  wood,  brought  out  the  scoriae  which  floated  on  the 
top,  and  stirred  the  metal  so  as  to  fine  it.  It  is  proved  that  these 
wooden  pokers  or  poles  were  made  use  of  in  all  the  furnace- 
works.  A  quantity  of  morsels  of  scoriae  is  found  which,  having 
been  in  a  soft  state  when  extracted,  have  retained  the  imprint  of 
the  piece  of  wood,  the  end  of  which  was  evidently  charred. 
M.  Morlot,  in  his  article  on  the  Roman  ironworks  at  Wocheim,  in 
Upper  Carniola,  has  also  noticed  the  existence,  in  the  scoriae,  of 
frequent  traces  of  pokers,  sometimes  round  and  sometimes  three- 
cornered  in  shape,  but  all  of  them  must  have  been  made  of  iron, 
whilst  throughout  the  whole  of  the  Jura  we  have  never  recognised 
the  traces  of  any  but  wooden  implements  of  this  kind. 

"  Owing  to  the  imperfection  of  the  furnaces,  and  especially  the 
deficiency  in  the  draught  caused  by  the  want  of  bellows,  the 
metal  contained  in  the  ore  could  be  but  very  imperfectly  ex- 
tracted ;  the  scoriae  are  therefore  still  so  very  rich  in  iron  that, 
about  twenty  years  ago,  the  manager  of  the  ironworks  at  Unter- 
velier  tried  to  use  them  over  again  as  ore.  Accumulations  of 
this  dross,  measuring  from  100  to  200  yards  square,  may  be  seen 
near  certain  furnaces — a  fact  which  would  infer  a  somewhat  con- 
siderable production  of  iron.  The  examination  of  these  scoriae 
proves  that  iron  was  then  made  by  one  single  operation,  and  not 
liquid  pigs  fit  for  casting,  or  to  be  converted  into  iron  by  a  second 
series  of  operations. 

"The  iron  produced  was  introduced  into  commerce  in  large 
blocks,  shaped  like  two  quadrangular  pyramids  joined  at  the  base, 
weighing  from  12  to  1 6  Ibs.  One  of  these  pieces  was  found  near  a 
furnace  which  had  been  demolished  in  order  to  establish  a  char- 
coal furnace,  in  the  commune  of  Untervelier,  and  another  in  one 
of  the  furnaces  of  Boecourt. 

"All  round  the  furnaces  there  have  been  found  numerous 

x  2 


3o8  THE  AGE   OF  METALS. 

remains  of  rough  pottery ;  it  is  badly  baked,  and  made  without 
the  help  of  the  wheel,  from  clay  which  is  mingled  with  grains  of 
quartz — the  pottery,  in  fact,  which  is  called  Celtic.  Pieces  of 
stag's  horn  have  also  been  discovered,  which  must  have  been 
used  for  the  handles  of  tools  ;  also  iron  hatchets.  One  of  them 
has  a  socket  at  the  end  made  in  a  line  with  the  length  of  the 
implement ;  it  is  an  instrument  belonging  to  the  most  remote 
period  of  the  Iron  Age.  The  others  have  transversal  sockets  like 
our  present  hatchets.  One  of  the  latter  was  made  of  steel  so 
hard  that  it  could  not  be  touched  with  the  file.  With  regard  to 
coins,  both  Gallic  and  Roman  were  found,  and  some  of  the  latter 
were  of  as  late  a  date  as  that  of  the  Constantines.  The  persis- 
tence in  practising  the  routine  of  all  the  most  ancient  processes 
may  be  explained  by  the  monopoly  of  the  iron-working  trade 
being  retained  in  the  same  families.  We  have  the  less  need  to 
be  surprised  at  this,  because  we  may  notice  that  the  wood- cutters 
and  charcoal-burners  of  our  own  days,  when  they  have  to  take 
up  their  abode  in  a  locality  for  any  length  of  time,  and  to  carry 
on  their  trade  there,  always  make  certain  arrangements  which 
have  doubtless  been  handed  down  from  the  most  primitive  times. 
In  order  to  protect  their  beds  from  the  damp,  they  make  a  kind 
of  shelf  of  fir-poles  which  is  used  as  a  bedstead.  Some  of  them 
have  two  stories  ;  the  under-one  intended  for  the  children,  and 
the  one  above  for  the  parents.  Moss,  ferns,  and  dried  grass  form 
the  mattress.  Coverlets  impossible  to  describe  were  made  good 
use  of,  and  some  were  even  made  of  branches  of  fir-trees.  These 
bedsteads  take  the  place  both  of  benches  and  chairs.  A  stone 
fireplace,  roughly  arranged  in  the  centre  of  the  hut,  fills  the  double 
function  of  warming  in  winter  and  cooking  the  food  all  the  year 
round.  We  may  also  add,  that  the  fire,  which  is  almost  always 
kept  lighted,  and  the  ashes  spread  over  the  floor  all  round,  pre- 
serve the  hut  from  certain  troublesome  insects,  which  lose  their 
lives  by  jumping  imprudently  into  this  unknown  trap.  The 
smoke  finds  no  other  issue  but  through  a  hole  made  in  the  roof."* 

*  "  De  1'Age  du  Fer,  Recherches  sur  les  anciennes  Forges  du  Jura  Bernois,"  by 
A.  Quiquerez,  Engineer  of  the  Jura  Mines.  Porrentruy,  1866  ;  pp.  35-39,  77-80. 
Also,  "Materiaux  pour  1'Histoire  positif  de  rilomme,"  by  G.  de  Mortillet,  vol.  ii. 
PP.  505-510. 


THE  IRON  EPOCH.  309 

Such  is  the  description  given  by  M.  Quiquerez  of  the  iron 
furnaces  of  a  really  pre-historic  character — those,  namely,  which 
are  characterised  by  the  absence  of  bellows.  We  think,  however, 
that  there  must  have  been  holes  below  the  hearth  which  afforded 
access  to  currents  of  air,  and,  by  being  alternately  open  or  closed, 
served  either  to  increase  or  diminish  the  intensity  of  the  draught. 
But  bellows,  properly  so  called,  intended  to  promote  the  com- 
bustion and  chemical  reaction  between  the  oxide  of  iron  and  the 
charcoal  did  not  then  exist. 

The  addition  of  the  bellows  to  iron-furnaces  brought  an  essen- 
tial improvement  to  the  art  of  the  manufacture  of  iron. 

Another  improvement  consisted  in  making,  at  the  bottom  of 
the  stone  receptacle  where  the  fuel  and  the  ore  were  burnt 
together,  a  door  composed  of  several  bricks  which  could  be 
readily  moved.  At  the  completion  of  each  operation  they  drew 
out,  through  this  door,  the  cake  of  iron,  which  could  not  be  so 
conveniently  extracted  at  the  upper  part  of  the  furnace  on 
account  of  its  height.  The  hammering,  assisted  by  several 
heatings,  finally  cleared  the  iron  in  the  usual  way,  from  all 
extraneous  matter,  consolidated  it,  and  converted  it  into  the 
state  of  bar-iron  fit  for  the  blacksmith's  use,  and  for  the  fabrica- 
tion of  utensils  and  tools. 

These  improved  primitive  furnaces  are  well  known  to  German 
miners  under  the  name  of  Stuckofeu  ("  fragment  furnaces  ").  They 
are  modified  in  different  ways  in  different  countries  ;  and  accord- 
ing to  the  arrangement  of  the  furnace,  and  especially  according 
to  the  nature  of  the  ferruginous  ores,  certain  methods  or  manipu- 
lations of  the  iron  have  been  introduced,  which  are  nowadays 
known  under  the  names  of  the  Swedish,  German,  Styrian,  Carin- 
thian,  Corsican,  and  Catalan  methods. 

The  ancient  furnaces  for  the  extraction  of  iron  may  be  com- 
bined under  the  name  of  smelting  forges  or  bloomeries. 

The  invention  of  siliceous  fluxes  as  applied  to  the  extraction 
of  iron,  and  facilitating  the  production  of  a  liquid  scoria  which 
could  flow  out  in  the  form  of  a  stream  of  fire,  put  the  finishing 
stroke  to  the  preparation  of  iron.  The  constructors  next  con- 
siderably increased  the  height  of  the  stone  crucible  in  which  the 
fuel  and  the  ore,  now  mingled  with  siliceous  flux,  were  placed, 


3io  THE  AGE   OF  METALS. 

and  the  blast  furnace,  that  is,  the  present  system  of  the  pre- 
paration of  iron,  soon  came  into  existence. 

But,  there  may  be  reason  to  think,  neither  of  these  two  kinds 
of  furnaces  belongs  to  the  primitive  ages  of  mankind  which  are 
the  object  of  this  work.  In  the  iron  epoch — that  we  are  con- 
sidering— the  furnace  without  bellows  was  possibly  the  only 
one  known  ;  the  iron  was  prepared  in  very  small  quantities  at  a 
time,  and  the  meagre  metallic  cake,  the  result  from  each  opera- 
tion, had  to  be  picked  out  from  among  the  ashes  drawn  from  the 
stone  receptacle. 

Gold,  as  we  have  already  said,  was  known  to  the  men  of  the 
bronze  epoch.  Silver,  on  the  contrary,  did  not  come  into  use 
until  the  iron  epoch. 

Another  characteristic  of  the  epoch  we  are  now  studying  is  the 
appearance  of  pottery  made  on  the  potter's  wheel,  and  baked  in 
an  improved  kind  of  furnace.  Up  to  that  time  pottery  had  been 


Fig.  232. — Bronze  Coin,  from  the  Lake  of  Neuchatel. 

moulded  by  the  hand  and  merely  burnt  in  the  open  air.  In  the 
iron  epoch,  the  potter's  wheel  came  into  use,  a*nd  articles  of 
earthenware  were  manufactured  on  this  wheel,  and  baked  in  an 
unexceptionable  way  in  an  oven  especially  constructed  for  the 
purpose. 

There  is  another  fact  which  likewise  characterises  the  iron 
epoch ;  this  was  the  appearance  of  coined  money.  The  earliest 
known  coins  belong  to  this  period  ;  they  are  made  of  bronze,  and 
bear  a  figure  or  effigy,  not  stamped,  but  obtained  by  melting  and 
casting. 

The  most  ancient  coins  that  are  known  are  Greek,  and  date 
back  to  the  eighth  century  before  Christ.  These  are  the  coins  of 
^Egina,  Athens,  and  Cyzicum,  such  as  were  found  many  years  ago 
in  the  Duchy  of  Posen.  In  the  lacustrine  settlement  of  Neuchatel, 
coins  of  a  remote  antiquity  have  also  been  found.  We  here  re- 
present in  its  natural  size  (Fig.  232),  taken  from  M.  Desor's  work 


THE  IRON  EPOCH.  311 

a  bronze  coin  found  in  the  settlement  of  La  Tene  in  the  Lake  of 
Neuchatel.  But  these  coins  are  not  more  ancient  than  the  Greek 
specimens  that  we  have  before  named.  They  are  shown  to  be 
Gallic  by  the  horned  horse,  which  is  a  Gallic  emblem. 

At  Tiefenau,  near  Berne,  coins  have  been  found  of  a  nearly 
similar  character  associated  with  others  having  on  them  the  effigy 
of  Apollo,  and  bearing  an  imprint  of  Massilia  (Marseilles).  As 
the  foundation  of  this  Phocaean  colony  dates  back  to  the  sixth 
century  before  Christ,  these  coins  may  be  said  to  be  among  the 
most  ancient  which  exist. 

Glass  became  known,  as  we  have  before  stated,  in  the  bronze 
epoch. 

In  short,  the  essential  features  which  distinguish  the  iron  epoch 
are,  iron  instruments,  and  implements  combining  with  those  of 
bronze  to  replace  stone  in  all  the  uses  for  which  it  was  anciently 
employed — the  knowledge  of  silver  and  lead,  the  improvement  of 
pottery,  and  the  introduction  of  coined  money.  With  regard  to 
its  chronological  date  we  should  adopt  that  of  about  2,000  years 
before  the  Christian  era,  thus  agreeing  with  the  generality  of 
authors — the  date  of  the  bronze  epoch  being  fixed  about  4,000 
years  before  Christ. 

After  these  general  considerations,  we  shall  pass  on  to  give 
some  account  of  the  manners  and  customs  of  man  during  the 
iron  epoch,  or,  at  least,  during  the  earlier  portion  of  this  period, 
which  ere  long  became  blended  with  historic  ages. 

When  we  have  completed  our  study  of  man  in  the  earlier 
period  of  the  iron  epoch,  we  shall  have  terminated  the  rapid  sketch 
which  we  have  intended  to  trace  out  of  primitive  man  and  his 
labours.  This  period  commenced,  as  we  have  just  stated,  about 
2,000  years  before  Christ,  and  ultimately  merged  into  the  earliest 
glimmer  of  historical  records.  Our  task  now  is  to  describe  all  we 
know  about  man  at  this  date  of  nascent  civilisation.  Afterwards, 
the  earliest  historians — and  among  them,  Herodotus,  the  father 
of  history — are  the  authorities  whom  we  must  consult  for  an 
account  of  the  actions  and  exploits  of  the  human  race  in  Europe. 


3i2  THE  AGE   OF  METALS. 


CHAPTER    II. 

Weapons — Tools,  Instruments,  Utensils,  and  Pottery — The  Tombs  of  Hallstadt  and 
the  Plateau  of  La  Somma — The  Lake  Settlements  of  Switzerland— Human  Sacrifices 
— Type  of  Man  during  the  Iron  Epoch— Commencement  of  the  Historic  Era. 

THE  most  valuable  traces  of  the  manners  and  customs  of  man 
during  the  earlier  period  of  the  iron  epoch  have  been  furnished 
by  the  vast  burial-ground  discovered  recently  at  Hallstadt,  near 
Salzburg,  in  Austria.  M.  Ramsauer,  Director  of  the  salt-mines 
of  Salzburg,  has  explored  more  than  1,000  tombs  in  this  locality, 
and  has  described  them  in  a  work  full  of  interest,  a  manuscript 
copy  of  which  we  have  consulted  in  the  Archaeological  Museum 
of  Saint-Germain. 

As  the  tombs  at  Hallstadt  belong  to  the  earlier  period  of  the 
iron  epoch,  they  represent  to  us  the  natural  transition  from  the 
epoch  of  bronze  to  that  of  iron.  In  fact,  in  a  great  number  of 
objects  contained  in  these  tombs — such  as  daggers,  swords,  and 
various  ornaments — bronze  and  iron  are  combined.  One  sword, 
for  instance,  is  formed  of  a  bronze  hilt  and  an  iron  blade.  This 
is  represented  in  Figs.  233,  234,  235,  and  236,  drawn  from  the 
sketches  in  M.  Ramsauer's  manuscript  work  entitled  "  Les  Tombes 
de  Hallstadt,"  in  which  this  combination  of  the  two  metals  is 
remarked  upon ;  the  sword-hilts  being  formed  of  one  metal  and 
the  blades  of  another. 

By  taking  a  rapid  survey  of  the  objects  found  in  the  tombs  of 
Hallstadt,  we  can  form  a  somewhat  accurate  idea  of  the  first  out- 
set of  the  Iron  Age. 

The  first  point  which  strikes  us  in  this  period,  is  the  utter 
change  which  had  taken  place  in  the  interment  of  the  dead. 

During  the  Stone  Age,  the  dead  were  placed  in  small  subter- 
ranean crypts,  that  is  in  dolmens  or  tumuli.  During  the  Bronze 


THE  IRON  EPOCH, 


313 


Age  it  became  to  a  great  extent  customary  for  men  to  burn  the 
dead  bodies  of  their  friends. 

This  custom  was  destined  to  become  more  and  more  prevalent 
century  after  century,  and  during  historic  times  it  became  uni- 
versal among  a  great  many  nations. 


Fig.  233.— Sword,  from  the  Tombs  of  Hallstadt 
(with  a  Bronze  Hilt  and  Iron  Blade). 


Fig  234.  -Sword,  from  the  Tombs  of  Hallstadt 
(with  a  Bronze  Hilt  and  Iron  Blade). 


In  fact,  in  the  tombs  of  Hallstadt,  several  little  earthen  vessels 
containing  ashes  maybe  seen.  Sometimes  only  part  of  the  body 
was  burnt,  so  that  a  portion  of  a  skeleton  was  found  in  these  tombs, 
and  near  it  the  ashes  of  the  partswhich  the  fire  had  consumed. 


314 


THE  AGE   OF  METALS. 


The  remains  found  in  the  tombs  of  Hallstadt  are  almost  equally 
divided  between  these  two  modes  of  inhumation.  About  half  of 
the  tombs  contain  nothing  but  ashes  ;  in  the  other  half,  corpses 
are  laid  extended,  according  to  the  custom  which  was  most  preva- 
lent in  the  Iron  Age.  Lastly,  as  we  have  just  stated,  some  of  them 
contained  skeletons  which  were  partially  burnt.  Sometimes  it 
was  the  head,  sometimes  the  whole  bust,  or  sometimes  the  lower 


Fig-  235.— Dagger,  from  the  Tombs  of  Hallstadt 
(Bronze  Handle  and  Iron  Blade). 


Fig.  236.  —Dagger,  from  the  Tombs  of  Hallstadt 
(Bronze  Handle  and  Iron  Blade). 


limbs  which  were  consumed,  the  ashes  being  deposited  by  the 
side  of  the  intact  portions  of  the  skeleton.  Fig.  238,  which  is 
designed  from  one  of  the  .illustrations  in  M.  Ramsauer's  manu- 
script work,  "  Les  Tombes  de  Hallstadt,"  in  the  Museum  of  Saint- 
Germain,  represents  a  skeleton,  part  of  which  (the  chest)  has  been 
consumed.  The  ashes  are  contained  in  small  earthen  vessels 
which  are  seen  near  the  corpse. 


Fig.  237.— Funeral  Ceremonies  during  the  Iron  Epoch.     (Page  314.) 


THE  IRON  EPOCH.  315 

From  the  data  which  we  have  acquired  as  to  this  custom  of 
burning  dead  bodies  during  the  iron  epoch,  we  have  been  able  to 
represent  the  funeral  ceremonies  of  the  iron  epoch  in  the  preceding 
figure. 

The  corpse  is  placed  on  a  funeral  pile,  and  the  stone  door  of 


Fig.  238. — A  Skeleton,  portions  of  which  have  been  burnt,  from  the  Tombs  of  Hallstadt. 

the  tumulus  is  raised  in  order  to  deposit  in  it  the  cinerary  urn. 
The  relations  of  the  deceased  accompany  the  procession  clothed 
in  their  handsomest  garments  and  adorned  with  the  bronze  and 
iron  ornaments  which  were  then  in  vogue.  One  of  those  present 
may  be  seen  throwing  some  precious  objects  into  the  flames  of 
the  funeral  pile  in  honour  of  the  deceased. 


3i6 


THE  AGE   OF  METALS. 


The  tombs  of  Hallstadt  are  the  locality  in  which  the  largest 
number  of  objects,  such  as  weapons,  instruments,  and  implements, 
have  been  met  with,  which  have  tended  to  throw  a  light  upon 
the  history  of  the  transition  from  the  bronze  to  the  iron  epoch. 
All  these  objects  are  either  of  bronze  or  iron  ;  but  in  the  weapons 
the  latter  predominates.  Swords,  spear-heads,  daggers,  knives, 
socketed  hatchets  and  winged  hatchets  form  the  catalogue  of  the 
sharp  instruments.  In  the  preceding  pages  (Figs.  233,  234,  235, 
and  236)  we  have  given  representations  of  swords  and  daggers 
designed  from  the  specimens  in  the  Museum  of  Saint-Germain. 


Fig.  239.— A  Necklace  with  Pendants,  from  the  Tombs  of  Hallstadt. 

In  all  these  weapons  the  handle  is  made  of  bronze  and  the  blade 
of  iron.  Warriors'  sword-belts  are  frequently  formed  of  plates 
of  bronze,  and  are  embellished  with  a  repousse  ornamentation 
executed  by  the  hammer. 

In  Fig.  239  we  give  a  representation  of  a  necklace  with  pen- 
dants which  is  most  remarkable  in  its  workmanship.  It  may  be 
readily  seen  that  art  had  now  attained  some  degree  of  maturity. 
This  necklace  was  a  prelude  to  the  marvellous  works  of  art  which 
were  about  to  be  brought  to  light  under  the  skies  of  Greece. 


THE  IRON  EPOCH.  317 

The  bracelets  which  have  been  met  with  by  hundreds,  hair  pins, 
and  bronze  fibitlce  are  all  wrought  with  taste,  and  are  often 
adorned  with  very  elegant  pendants.  In  Figs.  240  and  241  we 
show  two  bracelets,  the  sketches  for  which  were  taken  from  the 
designs  in  the  manuscript  of  the  "  Tombes  de  Hallstadt." 


Fig.  240. — Bracelet,  from  the  Tombs  of  Hallstadt.    Fig.  241. — Bracelet,  from  the  Tombs  of  Hallstadt. 

We  may  add  a  few  amber  necklace-beads  and  some  of  enamel, 
and  we  have  then  concluded  the  series  of  personal  ornaments. 

In  the  tombs  of  Hallstadt  nearly  200  bronze  vessels  have  been 
discovered,  some  of  which  are  as  much  as  36  inches  in  height. 


Fig.  242. — Bronze  Vase,  from  the  Tombs  ot  Fig.  243. — Bronze  Vase,' from  the  Tombs  of 

Hallstadt.  Hallstadt. 

These  bronze  vessels  were  composed  of  several  pieces  skilfully 
riveted  but  not  soldered.  Plates  242  and  243  are  reproduced 
from  the  same  beautiful  manuscript. 

In  the  tombs  of  Hallstadt  some  small  glass  vessels  have  also 
been  discovered. 


3i8  THE  AGE   OF  METALS. 

Remains  of  pottery  are  very  plentiful,  and  a  decided  improve- 
ment is  shown  in  their  workmanship.  Some  gold  trinkets  were 
also  met  with  in  these  tombs.  The  gold  was,  doubtless,  obtained 
from  the  mines  of  Transylvania. 

African  Ivory  abounds  in  these  graves — a  fact  which  indicates 
commercial  intercourse  with  very  distant  countries.  This  pro- 
duct, as  well  as  the  glass,  was  introduced  into  Europe  by  the 
Phoenicians.  The  inhabitants  of  central  Europe  obtained  ivory 
from  Tyre  and  Sidon  by  means  of  barter. 

The  ivory  objects  which  were  found  at  Hallstadt  consisted  of 
the  heads  of  hair-pins  and  the  pommels  of  swords. 

There  were  no  traces  whatever  of  money,  the  use  of  it  not 
being  then  established  in  that  part  of  Europe. 

The  population  which  lived  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Salzburg 
mines  were  in  reality  rich  ;  for  the  salt-mines  were  a  source  of 
great  wealth  to  them  at  a  period  when  the  deposit  of  rock-salt  in 
Poland,  being  still  buried  in  the  depths  of  the  earth,  were  as  yet 
unknown  or  inaccessible.  In  this  way  we  may  account  for  the 
general  opulence  of  these  commercial  nations,  and  for  the  elegance 
and  taste  displayed  in  the  objects  which  have  been  found  in  the 
tombs  of  Hallstadt. 

Guided  by  these  various  remains,  it  is  not  difficult  to  reproduce 
an  ideal  picture  of  the  warriors  of  the  iron  epoch,  a  representation 
of  which  we  have  endeavoured  to  give  in  Fig.  244.  The  different 
pieces  of  the  ornaments  observed  on  the  horseman,  on  the  foot- 
soldier,  and  also  on  the  horse,  are  drawn  from  specimens  exhibited 
in  the  Museum  of  Saint-Germain  which  were  modelled  at  Hall- 
stadt. The  helmet  is  in  perfect  preservation,  and  resembles  those 
which,  shortly  after,  were  worn  by  the  Gallic  soldiers.  The  bosses, 
also,  on  the  horse's  harness,  ere  long  came  into  use  both  among 
the  Gauls  and  also  the  Romans. 

Next  to  the  tombs  of  Hallstadt  we  must  mention  the  tombs 
discovered  on  the  plateau  of  La  Somma,  in  Lombardy,  which 
have  contributed  a  valuable  addition  to  the  history  of  the  earliest 
period  of  the  iron  epoch. 

On  this  plateau  there  were  discovered  certain  tombs,  composed 
of  rough  stones  of  a  rectangular  form.  In  the  interior  there  were 
some  vases  of  a  shape  suited  to  the  purpose,  containing  ashes. 


Fig.   244.— Warriors  of  the  Iron  Epoch.     (Page  318.) 


THE  IRON  EPOCH. 


319 


The  material  of  which  they  were  made  was  fine  clay  ;  they  had 
been  wrought  by  means  of  the  potter's  wheel,  were  ornamented 
with  various  designs,  and  also  provided  with  encircling  projec- 
tions. On  some  of  them,  representations  of  animals  may  be  seen, 
which  indicate  a  considerable  progress  in  the  province  of  art. 
The  historic  date  of  these  urns  is  pointed  out  by  fibulce  (clasps 
for  cloaks),  iron  rings  and  bracelets,  sword-belts  partly  bronze 
and  partly  iron,  and  small  bronze  chains.  The  tombs  of  La 
Somma  belong,  therefore,  to  a  period  of  transition  between  the 
bronze  and  iron  epochs.  According  to  M.  Mortillet,  they  date 
back  to  the  seventh  century  before  Christ. 


Figs.  245,  246. — Fore-arm,  encircled  with  Bracelets,  found  in  the  Tombs  of  Belleville  (Savoy). 

Under  the  same  head  we  will  class  the  tombs  of  Saint-Jean  de 
Belleville,  in  Savoy.  At  this  spot  several  tombs  belonging  to  the 
commencement  of  the  iron  epoch  have  been  explored  by  MM. 
Borel  and  Costa  de  Beauregard.  The  latter,  in  a  splendid  work  pub- 
lished in  Savoy,  has  given  a  detailed  description  of  these  tombs.* 

Some  of  the  skeletons  are  extended  on  their  backs,  others  have 
been  consumed,  but  only  partially,  like  those  which  we  have 
already  mentioned  in  the  tombs  of  Hallstadt.  Various  objects, 
*  "Les  Sepultures  de  Saint-Jean  de  Belleville,"  with  lithographed  plates. 


320  THE  AGE   OF  METALS. 

consisting  chiefly  of  trinkets  and  ornaments,  have  been  met  with 
in  these  tombs.  We  will  mention  in  particular  the  fibula,  brace- 
lets, and  necklaces  made  of  amber,  enamelled  glass,  &c. 

In  Figs.  245  and  246  we  give  a  representation  of  two  skeleton 
arms,  which  are  encircled  with  several  bracelets  just  as  they  were 
found  in  these  tombs. 

The  lacustrine  settlements  of  Switzerland  have  contributed  a 
valuable  element  towards  the  historic  reconstruction  of  the  iron 
epoch. 

In  different  parts  of  the  lakes  of  Bienne  and  Neuchatel  there  are 
pile-works  which  contain  iron  objects  intermingled  with  the  re- 
mains of  preceding  ages.  But  there  is  only  one  lacustrine  settle- 
ment in  Switzerland  which  belongs  exclusively  to  the  earliest 
period  of  the  Iron  Age — that  of  La  Tene  on  the  Lake  of  Neuchatel. 

Most  of  the  objects  which  have  been  met  with  in  this  lacustrine 
settlement  have  been  recovered  from  the  mud  in  which  they  had 
been  so  remarkably  preserved,  being  sheltered  from  any  contact 
with  the  outer  air.  There  are,  however,  many  spots  in  which 
piles  maybe  seen,  where  objects  of  this  kind  have  not  been  found  ; 
but  if  subsequent  researches  are  attended  writh  any  results,  we 
shall  be  forced  to  attribute  to  the  settlement  of  La  Tene  a  con- 
siderable degree  of  importance,  for  the  piles  there  extend  over  an 
area  of  37  acres. 

The  remains  of  all  kinds  which  have  been  found  in  this  settle- 
ment are  evidently  of  Gallic  origin.  It  is  an  easy  matter  to  prove 
this  by  comparing  the  weapons  found  in  this  settlement  with 
those  which  were  discovered  in  the  trenches  of  Alise-Sainte-Reine, 
the  ancient  Alcsia,  where,  in  its  last  contest  against  Caesar,  the 
independence  of  ancient  Gaul  came  to  an  end. 

M.  de  Rougemont  has  called  attention  to  the  fact  that  these 
weapons  correspond  very  exactly  to  the  description  given  by 
Diodorus  Siculus  of  the  Gallic  weapons.  Switzerland  thus  seems 
to  have  been  inhabited  in  the  earliest  iron  epoch  by  Gallic  tribes, 
that  is  to  say,  by  a  different  race  from  that  which  occupied  it 
during  the  stone  and  bronze  epochs  ;  and  it  was  this  race  which 
introduced  into  Switzerland  the  use  of  iron. 

Among  the  objects  collected  in  the  late  settlements  of  La  Tene, 
weapons  are  the  most  numerous ;  they  consist  of  swords  and  the 


THE  IRON  EPOCH. 


321 


heads  of  spears  and  javelins.  Most  of  them  have  been  kept  from 
oxidation  by  the  peaty  mud  which  entirely  covered  them,  and 
they  are,  consequently,  in  a  state  of  perfect  preservation. 

The  swords  are  all  straight,  of  no  very  great  thickness,  and 
perfectly  flat.    The  blade  is  from  31  to  35  inches  in  length,  and  is 


Fig.  247. — Iron  Sword,  found  in  one  of  the 
Swiss  Lakes. 


Fig.  248. — Sword  with  Damascened  Blade, 
found  in  one  of  the  Swiss  Lakes. 


terminated  by  a  handle  about  6  inches  long.  They  have  neither 
guards  nor  cross-pieces.  Several  of  them  were  still  in  their 
sheaths,  from  which  many  of  them  have  been  drawn  out  in  a 
state  of  perfect  preservation,  and  even  tolerably  sharp. 

Y 


322  THE  AGE  OF   METALS. 

Fig.  247  represents  one  of  the  iron  swords  from  the  Swiss  lakes, 
which  are  depicted  in  M.  Desor's  memoir. 

On  another  sword,  of  which  we  also  give  a  representation 
(Fig.  248),  a  sort  of  damascening  work  extends  over  almost  the 
whole  surface,  leaving  the  edges  alone  entirely  smooth. 

M.  de  Reffye,  the  archaeologist,  accounts  for  this  fact  in  the  fol- 
lowing way  : — He  is  of  opinion  that  the  body  of  the  blade  is  made 
of  very  hard  unyielding  iron,  whilst  the  edges  are  made  of  small 
strips  of  mellower  iron,  which  have  been  subsequently  welded  and 
wrought  by  the  hammer.  This  mode  of  manufacture  enabled  the 
soldier,  when  his  sword  was  notched,  to  repair  it  by  means  of  ham- 
mering. This  was  a  most  valuable  resource  during  an  epoch  in 


Fig.  249. — Sheath  of  a  Sword,  found  in  one  of  the  Swiss  Lakes. 

which  armies  did  not  convey  stores  along  with  them,  and  when 
the  soldier's  baggage  was  reduced  to  a  very  little  more  than  he 
could  personally  carry.  Several  of  these  damascened  blades  have 
been  found  in  the  trenches  of  Alise. 

The  sheaths,  the  existence  of  which  now  for  the  first  time  comes 
under  our  notice,  are  of  great  importance  on  account  of  the  designs 
with  which  they  are  ornamented.  Most  of  these  designs  are  en- 
graved with  a  tool,  others  are  executed  in  repousse  work.  All  of 
them  show  great  originality  and  peculiar  characteristics,  which  pre- 
vent them  from  being  confounded  with  works  of  Roman  art.  One 
of  these  sheaths  (Fig.  249),  which  belongs  to  M.  Desor's  collection 


THE  IRON  EPOCH. 


323 


and  is  depicted  in  his  memoir,  represents  the  "horned  horse," 
the  emblem  of  Gaul,  which  is  sufficient  proof  of  the  Gallic  origin 
of  the  weapons  found  in  the  Lake  of  La  Tene.  Below  this 
emblem  there  is  a  kind  of  granulated  surface  which  bears  some 
resemblance  to  shagreen. 

This  sheath  is  composed  of  two  very  thin  plates  of  wrought  iron 
laid  one  upon  the  other,  except  at  the  base,  where  they  are  united 
by  means  of  a  cleverly-wrought  band  of  iron.  At  its  upper  ex- 
tremity there  is  a  plate,  on  one  side  of  which  may  be  seen  the 


Fig.  250.— Lance-head,  found  in  one  of  the  Swiss  Lakes. 

designs  which  we  have  already  described,  and  on  the  other  a  ring, 
intended  to  suspend  the  weapon  to  the  belt. 

The  lance-heads  are  very  remarkable  on  account  of  their  extra- 
ordinary shape  and  large  size.  They  measure  as  much  as  16  inches 
long,  by  2  to  4  inches  wide,  and  are  double-edged  and  twisted 
into  very  diversified  shapes.  Some  are  winged,  and  others  are 
irregularly  indented.  Some  have  perforations  in  the  shape  of  a 
half-moon  (Fig.  250).  The  halberd  of  the  middle  ages  was,  very 
probably,  nothing  but  an  improvement  on,  or  a  deviation  from, 
these  singular  blades. 

Fragments  of  wooden  staves  have  been  met  with  which  had 

Y  2 


324  THE  AGE   OF  METALS. 

been  fitted  into  these  spear-heads  ;  they  are  slender,  and  shod 
with  iron  at  one  end. 

The  care  with  which  these  instruments  are  wrought  proves  that 
they  are  lance-heads,  and  not  mere  darts  or  javelins  intended  to  be 
thrown  to  a  distance  and  consequently  lost.  They  certainly  would 
not  have  taken  so  much  pains  with  the  manufacture  of  a  weapon 
which  would  be  used  only  once. 

It  is  altogether  a  different  matter  with  respect  to  the  javelins, 
a  tolerably  large  number  of  which  have  been  found  in  the 
lacustrine  settlements  of  La  Tene.  They  are  simply  socketed 
heads  (Fig.  251)  terminating  in  a  laurel-leaf  shape,  about  4  to  5 
inches  in  length. 


Fig.  251. — Head  of  a  Javelin,  found  in  the  Lacustrine  Settlement  of  La  Tcne  (Neuchatel). 

It  appears  from  experiments  ordered  by  the  Emperor  of  the 
French,  that  these  javelins  could  only  have  been  used  as  missile 
weapons,  and  that  they  were  thrown,  not  by  the  hand  merely 
grasping  the  shaft  (which  would  be  impossible  to  do  effectually 
on  account  of  their  light  weight),  but  by  means  of  a  cord  or 
thong,  which  was  designated  among  the  Romans  by  the  name  of 
amentum.  These  experiments  have  shown  that  a  dart  which 
could  be  thrown  only  65  feet  with  the  hand,  might  be  cast  four 
times  that  distance  by  the  aid  of  the  amentum.  There  probably 


THE  IRON  EPOCH. 


325 


existed  among  the  Gauls  certain  military  corps  who  practised 
the  use  of  the  amentum,  that  is  to  say,  the  management  of 
thonged  javelins )  and  threw  this  javelin  in  the  same  way  as  other 
warriors  threw  stones  by  means  of  a  sling.  This  conclusion, 
which  has  been  drawn  by  M.  Desor,  seems  to  us  a  very  just  one. 
Javelins  of  the  preceding  type  are  very  common  in  the  trenches 
of  Alise.  In  this  neighbourhood  a  large  number  of  iron  arrows 
have  also  been  found  which  have  never  been  met  with  in  the 
lacustrine  settlements  of  La  Tene. 


Fig.   253.— Square-socketed    Iron   Hatchet, 
found  in  one  of  the  Lakes  of  Switzerland. 


Fig.  254.  —Sickle. 


War  was  not  the  only  purpose  for  which  these  javelins  were 
used  by  the  men  of  the  iron  epoch.  Hunting,  too,  was  carried  on 
by  means  of  these  missile  weapons.  The  bow  and  the  thonged 
javelin  constituted  the  hunting  weapons  of  this  epoch.  We  have 
depicted  this  in  the  accompanying  plate,  which  represents  the 
chase  during  the  iron  epoch. 

Next  to  the  weapons  come  the  implements.  We  will,  in  the 
first  place,  mention  the  hatchets  (Fig.  253).  They  are  larger,  more 


326 


THE  AGE   OF  METALS. 


solid,  and  have  a  wider  cutting  edge  than  those  used  in  the  bronze 
epoch  ;  wings  were  no  longer  in  use,  only  a  square-shaped  socket 
into  which  was  fitted  a  wooden  handle,  probably  made  with  an 
elbow. 

The  sickles  (Fig.  254)  are  likewise  larger  and  also  more  simple 


Fig.  255. — Scythe,  from  the  Lacustrine  Settlements 
of  Switzerland. 


Fig.  256. — Iron  Point  of  Boat-hook, 
used  by  the  Swiss  Boatmen  during 
the  Iron  Epoch. 


than  those  of  the  bronze  epoch ;  there  are  neither  designs  nor 
ornaments  of  any  kind  on  them. 

With  the  pruning-bills  or  sickles  we  must  class  the  regular 
scythes  (Fig.  255)  with  stems  for  handling,  two  specimens  of 
which  have  been  discovered  in  the  lake  settlement  of  the  Tene. 


Fig.  257. — Horse's  Bit,  found  in  the  Lake  of  Neuchatel. 

Their  length  is  about  14  inches,  that  is,  about  one-third  as  large 
as  the  scythes  used  by  the  Swiss  harvest-men  of  the  present  day. 
One  important  inference  is  drawn  from  the  existence  of  these 
scythes ;  it  is,  that  at  the  commencement  of  the  iron  epoch  men 


THE  IRON  EPOCH. 


327 


were  in  the  habit  of  storing  up  a  provision  of  hay,  and  must  con- 
sequently have  reared  cattle. 

The  iron  fittings  at  the  ends  of  the  boats-hooks  used  by  the 
boatmen  on  the  lake  are  frequently  found  at  La  Tene  ;  they  ter- 
minate in  a  quadrangular  pyramid  or  in  a  cone  (Fig.  256).  Some 
still  contain  the  end  of  the  wooden  pole,  which  was  attached  to 
it  by  means  of  a  nail. 

Next  in  order  to  these  objects  we  must  mention  the  horses'  bits 
and  shoes ;  the  first  being  very  simply  constructed  so  as  to  last  for 
a  very  long  period  of  time.  They  were  composed  of  a  short  piece  of 


Fig.  258.— Fibula,  or  Iron  Brooch,  found  in  the  Lake  of  Neuchatel. 

iron  chain  (Fig.  257),  which  was  placed  in  the  horse's  mouth,  and 
terminated  at  each  end  in  a  ring  to  which  the  reins  were  attached. 
^h&  fibula  (Fig.  2  5  8),  or  clasps  for  cloaks,  are  especially  calculated 
to  attract  attention  in  the  class  of  ornamental  objects ;  they  are 
very  elegant  and  diversified  in  their  shapes,  their  dimensions  vary- 
ing from  2^/2  to  5  inches.  They  are  all  formed  of  a  pin  in  communi- 
cation with  a  twisted  spring  bent  in  various  ways.  They  are  pro- 
vided with  a  sheath  to  hold  the  end  of  the  brooch  pin,  so  as  to 
avoid  any  danger  of  pricking.  A  large  number  of  them  are  in 
an  excellent  state  of  preservation,  and  might  well  be  used  at  the 
present  day. 


328 


THE  AGE   OF  METALS. 


These  brooches,  which  we  have  already  called  attention  to 
when  speaking  of  the  tombs  of  Hallstadt,  were  also  used  by  the 
Etruscans  and  the  Romans ;  their  existence  in  the  pre-historic 


Fig.  259.— Iron  Buckle  for  a  Sword-belt,  found  in  the  Lake  of  Neuchatel. 

tombs  tends  to  prove  that,  like  the  above-named  nations,  the 
Swiss  and  Germans  wore  the  toga  or  mantle.  These  fibula  have 
a  peculiar  character,  and  it  is  impossible  to  confuse  them  with 
the  Roman  fibula.  They  are,  however,  similar  in  every  way  to 
those  which  have  been  found  at  Alise. 


Fig.  260. — Iron  Pincers,  found  in  the 
Lake  of  Neuchatel. 


Fig.  261. — Iron  Spring-Scissors,  found  in  the 
Lake  of  Neuchatel. 


There  have  also  been  found  in  the  Swiss  lakes,  along  with  the 
fibulce,  a  number  of  rings,  the  use  of  which  is  still  problematical. 
Some  are  flat,  and  others  chiselled  in  various  ways.  It  is  thought 


THE  IRON  EPOCH.  329 

that  some  of  them  must  have  been  used  as  buckles  for  soldiers' 
sword-belts  (Fig.  259)  ;  but  there  are  others  which  do  not  afford 
any  countenance  to  this  explanation.  Neither  can  they  be  looked 
on  as  bracelets,  for  most  of  them  are  too  small  for  any  such 
purpose.  Some  show  numerous  cuts  at  regular  intervals  all 
round  their  circumference  ;  this  fact  has  given  rise  to  the  supposi- 
tion that  they  might  perhaps  have  served  as  a  kind  of  money. 

In  the  lake  settlement  of  La  Tene  (Lake  of  Neuchatel),  iron 
pincers  have  also  been  found  (Fig.  260),  which  were  doubtless 
used  for  pulling  out  hair,  and  are  of  very  perfect  workmanship  ; 
also  scissors  with  a  spring  (Fig.  261),  the  two  legs  being  made  in 
one  piece,  and  some  very  thin  blades  (Fig.  262),  which  must  have 
been  razors. 

The  specimens  of  pottery  belonging  to  this  date  do  not  testify 
to  any  real  progress  having  been  made  beyond  the  workmanship 


Fig.  262. — Razor. 

of  the  bronze  epoch  ;  the  clay  is  still  badly  baked,  and  of  a  darkish 
colour.  It  certainly  is  the  case,  that  along  with  these  remains  a 
quantity  of  fragments  of  vessels  have  been  picked  up,  and  even 
entire  vessels,  which  have  been  made  by  the  help  of  the  potter's 
wheel  and  baked  in  an  oven,  and  consequently  present  the  red 
colour  usual  in  modern  earthenware. 

But  archaeologists  are  of  opinion  that  this  class  of  pottery  does 
not  date  back  beyond  the  Roman  epoch  ;  and  this  opinion  would 
seem  to  be  confirmed  by  the  existence,  in  the  midst  of  the  piles  at 
the  settlement  of  La  Tene,  of  a  mass  of  tiles,  evidently  of  Roman 
origin.  The  conclusion  to  be  drawn  from  these  facts  is,  that 
many  of  the  pile-works  in  the  Swiss  lakes  continued  to  be 
occupied  when  the  country  was  under  the  Roman  rule. 

One  of  the  characteristics  of  the  iron  epoch  is,  as  we  have  before 
stated,  the  appearance  of  coin  or  money.  In  1864,  M.  Desor  re- 


330  THE  AGE   OF  METALS. 

covered  from  the  Lake  of  La  Tene  five  coins  of  unquestionable 
Gallic  origin.  They  are  of  bronze,  and  bear  on  one  side  the  figure 
of  the  horned  horse,  and  on  the  other  a  human  profile.  In  Fig. 
232  we  gave  a  representation  of  these  curious  specimens  of  coin 
found  by  M.  Desor  in  the  lacustrine  settlements  of  the  Lake  of 
Neuchatel.  The  marks  of  the  mould  still  existing  on  each  side 
show  that  these  coins  were  cast  in  a  series,  and  that  after  the 
casting  the  coins  were  separated  from  one  another  by  means  of 
the  file. 

Coins  of  a  similar  character  have  been  discovered,  as  we  before 
observed,  at  Tiefenau,  near  Berne,  with  others  bearing  the  effigy 
of  Diana  and  Apollo,  and  the  imprint  of  Massilia.  The  latter 
date  from  the  foundation  of  Marseilles,  and  could  not,  therefore, 
be  anterior  to  the  sixth  century  before  the  Christian  era ;  it  is 
probable  that  those  discovered  along  writh  them  must  be  referred 
to  nearly  the  same  epoch. 

Such  are  the  relics  of  instruments,  tools,  weapons,  &c.,  made  of 
iron  and  recovered  from  the  lacustrine  settlement  of  La  Tene, 
that  is,  from  the  Lake  of  Neuchatel.  We  must  add  that,  near 
Berne,  at  a  spot  which  is  designated  by  the  name  of  the  "  Battle- 
field of  Tiefenau,"  because  it  appears  to  have  been  the  theatre  of 
a  great  conflict  between  the  Helvetians  and  the  Gauls,  a  hundred 
swords  and  spear-heads  have  been  picked  up,  similar  to  those 
found  at  La  Tene  ;  also  fragments  of  coats  of  mail,  rings,  fibula, 
the  tires  of  chariot-wheels,  horses'  bits,  and  lastly,  Gallic  and 
Marseillaise  coins  in  gold,,  silver,  and  bronze.  The  field  of  battle 
appears,  therefore  to  have  been  contemporary  with  the  settle- 
ment of  La  Tene. 

In  addition  to  these  valuable  sources  of  information — La  Tene 
and  Tiefenau — Switzerland  also  possesses  tumuli  and  simple 
tombs,  both  constituting  records  useful  to  consult  in  respect  to 
the  iron  epoch.  But  on  this  point  it  must  be  remarked  that  it 
is  often  difficult,  with  any  degree  of  security,  to  connect  them 
with  the  two  preceding  sites;  and  that  considerable  reserve  is 
recommended  in  attempting  any  kind  of  identification. 

Upon  the  whole,  the  Iron  Age,  looking  even"only  to  its  earliest 
period,  is  the  date  of  the  beginning  of  real  civilisation  among 
European  nations. 


THE  IRON  EPOCH.  331 

Their  industrial  skill,  exercised  on  the  earliest-used  materials, 
such  as  iron  and  textile  products,  furnished  all  that  was  required 
by  the  usages  of  life.  Commerce  was  already  in  a  flourishing 
state,  for  it  was  no  longer  carried  on  by  the  process  of  barter 
only.  Money,  in  the  shape  of  coin,  the  conventional  symbol  of 
wealth,  came  into  use  during  this  epoch,  and  must  have  singularly 
facilitated  the  operations  of  trade.  Agriculture,  too,  had  advanced 
as  much  as  it  could  at  this  earliest  dawn  of  civilisation.  The 
remains  of  cereals  found  in  the  lake  settlements  of  Switzerland, 
added  to  the  iron  instruments  intended  to  secure  the  products  of 
the  cultivation  of  the  ground,  such  as  the  scythes  and  sickles 
which  we  have  previously  depicted  (Figs.  254  and  255)?  ^re 
sufficient  to  show  us  that  agriculture  constituted  at  that  time  the 
chief  wealth  of  nations.  The  horse,  the  ass,  the  dog,  the  ox,  and 
the  pig,  had  for  long  time  back  been  devoted  to  the  service  of 
man,  either  as  auxiliaries  in  his  field-labours,  or  as  additions  to 
his  resources  in  the  article  of  food.  Fruit-trees,  too,  were  culti- 
vated in  great  numbers. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  we  have  no  acquaintance  with  any  of  the 
iron  and  bronze  instruments  which  were  used  by  men  of  the  iron 
epoch  in  cultivation  of  the  ground.  Scythes  and  sickles  are  the 
only  agricultural  implements  which  have  been  discovered.  But 
even  these  instruments,  added  to  a  quantity  of  remains  of  the 
bones  of  cattle  which  have  been  found  in  the  lacustrine  and 
palustrine  settlements,  are  sufficient  to  prove  that  the  art  of 
cultivating  the  earth  and  of  extracting  produce  from  its  bosom, 
rendered  fertile  by  practices  sanctioned  by  experience,  existed 
in  full  vigour  among  the  men  who  lived  during  the  period  imme- 
diately preceding  historic  times. 

The  plate  which  accompanies  this  page  is  intended  to  represent 
in  a  material  form  the  state  of  agriculture  during  the  iron  epoch. 
We  may  notice  the  corn-harvest  being  carried  on  by  means  of 
sickles,  like  those  found  in  the  lacustrine  settlements  of  Switzer- 
land. A  man  is  engaged  in  beating  out,  with  a  mere  stick,  the 
wheatsheaves  in  order  to  thrash  out  the  grain.  The  grain  is  then 
ground  in  a  circular  mill,  worked  by  a  horizontal  handle.  This 
mill  is  composed  of  two  stones  revolving  one  above  the  other, 
and  was  the  substitute  for  the  rough  primitive  corn-mill ;  it  subse 


332  THE  AGE  OF  METALS. 

quently  became  the  mill  used  by  the  Romans — the  pistnnum— 
at  which  the  slaves  were  condemned  to  work. 

Indications  of  an  unequivocal  character  have  enabled  us  to 
recognise  as  a  fact,  that  human  sacrifices  took  place  among  the 
Helvetians  during  this  period.  It  is,  however,  well  known,  from 
the  accounts  of  ancient  historians,  that  this  barbarous  custom 
existed  among  the  Gauls  and  various  nations  in  the  north  of 
Europe.  In  a  tumulus  situated  near  Lausanne,  which  contained 
four  cinerary  urns,  there  were  also  found  the  skeletons  of  four 
young  females.  Their  broken  bones  testified  but  too  surely  to 
the  tortures  which  had  terminated  their  existence.  The  remains 
of  their  ornaments  lay  scattered  about  in  every  direction,  and 
everything  was  calculated  to  lead  to  the  belief  that  they  had  been 
crushed  under  the  mass  of  stones  which  formed  the  tumulus — 
unhappy  victims  of  a  cruel  superstition.  Not  far  from  this  spot, 
another  tumulus  contained  twelve  skeletons  lying  in  all  kinds  of 
unusual  postures.  It  is  but  too  probable  that  these  were  the 
remains  of  individuals  who  had  all  been  immolated  together  on 
the  altar  of  some  supposed  implacable  divinity. 
/"What  was  the  character  of  the  type  of  the  human  race  during 

/  the  iron  epoch  ?     It  must  evidently  have  been  that  of  the  present 
era.     Both  the  skulls  and  the  bodies  of  the  skeletons  found  in 

\    the  tombs  of  this  epoch  point  to  a  race  of  men  entirely  identical 

\  with  that  of  our  own  days. 

We  shall  not  carry  on  our  study  of  pre-historic  mankind  to  any 
later  date.  We  have  now  arrived  at  an  epoch  upon  which  suffi- 
cient light  has  been  thrown  by  oral  tradition  combined  with 
historical  records.  The  task  of  the  historian  begins  at  the  point 
where  the  naturalist's  investigations  come  to  an  end. 


PRIMITIVE    MAN    IN   AMERICA. 


PRIMITIVE  MAN  IN  AMERICA. 

THE  development  of  mankind  has,  doubtless,  been  of  much  the 
same  character  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  so  that,  in  whatever 
quarter  of  the  world  man  may  come  under  our  consideration,  he 
must  have  passed  through  the  same  phases  of  progress  ere  he 
arrived  at  his  present  state.  Everywhere  man  must  have  had  his 
Stone  Age,  his  Bronze  Epoch,  and  his  Iron  Epoch,  succeeding 
one  another  in  the  same  order  which  we  have  ascertained  to  have 
existed  in  Europe.  In  the  sketch  which  we  have  drawn  of  primi- 
tive man,  we  have  devoted  our  attention  almost  entirely  to  Europe; 
but  the  cause  simply  is,  that  this  part  of  the  world  has,  up  to  the 
present  day,  been  the  principal  subject  of  special  and  attentive 
studies  in  this  respect.  Asia,  Africa,  and  America  can  scarcely 
be  said  to  have  been  explored  in  reference  to  the  antiquity  of  our 
species  ;  but  it  is  probable  that  the  facts  which  have  been  brought 
to  light  in  Europe,  would  be  almost  identically  reproduced  in 
other  parts  of  the  world. 

This  is  a  fact  which,  as  regards  dolmens,  has  been  already 
verified.  The  sepulchral  monuments  of  the  Stone  Age,  which 
were  at  first  believed  to  be  peculiar  to  France,  and,  indeed,  to 
one  province  of  France — namely,  Brittany — have  since  been  met 
with  in  almost  every  part  of  the  world.  Not  only  have  they  been 
discovered  all  over  Europe,  but  even  the  coasts  of  Africa  bring  to 
our  notice  numerous  relics  of  them  ;  also,  through  the  whole 
extent  of  Asia,  and  even  in  the  interior  of  India,  this  same  form 
of  sepulchre,  bearing  witness  to  a  well-determined  epoch  in 
man's  history,  hvae  been  pointed  out  and  described  by  recent 
travellers. 

Thus,  the  information  which  we  possess  on  these  points  as  re- 
gards Europe,  may  well  be  generalised  and  applied  to  the  other 
quarters  of  the  world — to  Asia,  Africa,  America,  and  Oceania. 


336  PRIMITIVE  MAN  IN  AMERICA. 

America,  however,  has  been  the  scene  of  certain  investigations 
concerning  primitive  man  which  have  not  been  without  fertile 
results ;  we  shall,  therefore,  devote  the  last  few  pages  of  our  work 
to  a  consideration  of  the  pre-historic  remains  of  America,  and  to 
giving  an  account  of  the  probable  conditions  of  man's  existence 
there,  as  they  have  been  revealed  to  us  by  these  relics. 

The  information  which  has  been  made  public  on  these  points 
concerns  North  America  only. 

It  would  be  useless  to  dwell  on  the  stone  and  bone  instru- 
ments of  the  New  World  ;  in  their  shape  they  differ  but  little 
from  those  of  Europe.  They  were  applied  to  the  same  uses,  and 
the  only  perceptible  difference  in  them  is  in  the  substance  of 
which  they  were  made.  We  find  there  hatchets,  knives,  arrow- 
heads, &c.,  but  these  instruments  are  not  so  almost  universally 
made  from  flint,  which  is  to  a  considerable  extent  replaced  by 
obsidian,  and  other  hard  stones. 

In  the  history  of  primitive  man  in  North  America  we  shall 
have  to  invent  another  age  of  a  special  character  ;  this  is  the  Age 
of  Copper.  In  America  the  use  of  copper  seems  to  have  preceded 
the  use  of  bronze  ;  native  metallic  copper  having  been  largely  in 
use  among  certain  races.  On  the  shores  of  Lake  Superior  there 
are  some  very  important  mines  of  native  copper,  which  must  have 
been  worked  by  the  Indians  at  a  very  early  date  ;  in  fact,  the 
traces  of  the  ancient  workings  have  been  distinctly  recognised 
by  various  travellers. 

Mr.  Knapp,  the  agent  of  the  Minnesota  Mining  Company, 
was  the  first  to  point  out  these  pre-historic  mines.  In  1847,  his 
researches  having  led  him  into  a  cavern  much  frequented  by  por- 
cupines, he  discovered,  under  an  accumulation  of  heaped-up  earth, 
a  vein  of  native  copper,  containing  a  great  number  of  stone 
hammers.  A  short  time  afterwards,  some  other  excavations,  25 
to  35  feet  in  depth,  and  stretching  over  an  extent  of  several 
miles,  came  under  his  notice.  The  earth  dug  out  had  been 
thrown  on  each  side  of  the  excavations  ;  and  mighty  forest  trees 
had  ^taken  root  and  grown  there.  In  the  trunk  of  a  hemlock 
tree  growing  in  this  "  made  ground,"  Mr.  Knapp  counted  395 
rings  of  growth,  and  this  tree  had  probably  been  preceded  by 
other  forest-giants  no  less  venerable.  In  the  trenches  themselves, 


PRIMITIVE  MAN  IN  AMERICA.  337 

which  had  been  gradually  filled  up  by  vegetable  debris,  trees  had 
formerly  grown,  which,  after  having  lived  for  hundreds  of  years, 
had  succumbed  and  decayed  ;  being  then  replaced  by  other  gene- 
rations of  vegetation,  the  duration  of  which  had  been  quite  as 
long.  When,  therefore,  we  consider  these  workings  of  the  native 
copper-mines  of  Lake  Superior,  we  are  compelled  to  ascribe  the 
above-named  excavations  to  a  considerable  antiquity. 

In  many  of  these  ancient  diggings  stone  hammers  have  been 
found,  sometimes  in  large  quantities.  One  of  the  diggings  con- 
tained some  great  diorite  hatchets  which  were  worked  by  the  aid 
of  a  handle,  and  also  large  cylindrical  masses  of  the  same  substance 
hollowed  out  to  receive  a  handle.  These  sledges,  which  are  too 
heavy  to  be  lifted  by  one  man  alone,  were  doubtless  used  for  break- 
ing off  lumps  of  copper,  and  then  reducing  them  to  fragments  of 
a  size  which  could  easily  be  carried  away.  If  we  may  put  faith 
in  Professor  Mather,  who  explored  these  ancient  mines,  some  of 
the  rocks  still  bore  the  mark  of  the  blow  they  had  received  from 
these  granite  rollers. 

The  work  employed  in  adapting  the  native  copper  was  of  the 
most  simple  character.  The  Indians  hammered  it  cold,  and 
taking  into  account  its  malleable  character,  they  were  enabled 
with  tolerable  facility  to  give  it  any  shape  that  they  wished. 

In  America,  just  as  in  Europe,  a  great  number  of  specimens  of 
pre-historic  pottery  have  been  collected.  They  are,  it  must  be 
confessed,  superior  to  most  of  those  found  in  the  ancient  world. 
The  material  of  which  they  were  made  is  very  fine,  excepting  in 
the  case  of  the  vessels  of  every-day  use,  in  which  the  clay  is 
mixed  with  quartz  reduced  to  powder ;  the  shapes  of  the  vessels 
are  of  the  purest  character,  and  the  utmost  care  has  been  devoted 
to  the  workmanship.  They  do  not  appear  to  have  been  con- 
structed by  the  aid  of  the  potter's  wheel;  but  Messrs.  Squier 
and  Davis,  very  competent  American  archaeologists,  are  of  opinion 
that  the  Indians,  in  doing  this  kind  of  work,  made  use  of  a  stick 
held  in  the  middle.  The  workman  turned  this  stick  round  and 
round  inside  the  mass  of  clay,  which  an  assistant  kept  on  adding 
to  all  round  the  circumference. 

In  regard,  to  pottery,  the  most  interesting  specimens  are  the 
pipes,  which  we  should,  indeed,  expect  to  meet  with  in  the  native 

z 


338  PRIMITIVE  MAN  IN  AMERICA. 

country  of  the  tobacco  plant  and  the  classic  calumet.  Many  of 
these  pipes  are  carved  in  the  shape  of  animals,  which  are  very 
faithfully  represented.  These  figures  are  very  various  in  character, 
including  quadrupeds  and  birds  of  all  kinds.  Indeed,  in  the  state 
of  Ohio  seven  pipes  were  found,  on  each  of  which  the  manatee 
was  so  plainly  depicted  that  it  is  impossible  to  mistake  the 
sculptor's  intention.  This  discovery  is  a  curious  one,  from  the 
fact  that  at  the  present  day  the  manatee  is  not  met  with  except 
in  localities  300  or  400  leagues  distant,  as  in  Florida. 

The  pre-historic ornaments  and  trinkets  found  in  North  America 
consist  of  bracelets,  necklaces,  earrings,  &c.  The  bracelets  are 
copper  rings  bent  by  hammerings,  so  that  the  two  ends  meet. 
The  necklaces  are  composed  of  shell  beads  (of  which  considerable 
quantities  have  been  collected),  shells,  animals'  teeth,  and  'small 
flakes  of  mica,  all  perforated  by  a  hole  so  as  to  be  strung  on  a 
thread.  The  earrings  also  are  made  of  the  same  material. 

All  these  objects — weapons,  implements,  pottery,  and  orna- 
ments— have  been  derived  from  certain  gigantic  works  which  ex- 
hibit some  similarity,  and  occasionally  even  a  striking  resem- 
blance, to  the  great  earthwork  constructions  of  the  Old  World. 
American  archaeologists  have  arranged  these  works  in  various 
classes  according  to  the  probable  purpose  for  which  they  were 
intended  ;  we  shall  now  dwell  for  a  short  time  on  these  divisions. 

In  the  first  place,  we  have  the  sepulchral  mounds  or  tumuli, 
the  numbers  of  which  may  be  reckoned  by  tens  of  thousands. 
They  vary  in  height  from  6  feet  to  80  feet,  and  are  generally  of  a 
circular  form  ;  being  found  either  separately  or  in  groups.  Most 
frequently  only  one  skeleton  is  found  in  them,  either  reduced 
almost  to  ashes,  or — which  is  more  rare — in  its  ordinary  condi- 
tion, and  in  a  crouching  posture.  By  the  side  of  the  corpse  are 
deposited  trinkets,  and,  in  a  few  cases,  weapons.  A  practice  the 
very  contrary  to  this  now  obtains  in  America ;  and  from  this  we 
may  conclude  that  a  profound  modification  of  their  ideas  has 
taken  place  among  the  Indians  since  the  pre-historic  epochs. 

It  is  now  almost  a  certain  fact  that  some  of  the  small  tumuli 
are  nothing  but  the  remains  of  mud-huts,  especially  as  they  do 
not  contain  either  ashes  or  bones.  Others,  on  the  contrary,  and 
some  of  the  largest,  contain  a  quantity  of  bones  ;  the  latter  must 


PRIMITIVE  MAN  IN  AMERICA.  339 

be  allied  with  the  ossuaries  or  bone-pits,  some  of  which  contain 
the  remains  of  several  thousand  individuals. 

It  would  be  difficult  to  explain  the  existence  of  accumulations  of 
this  kind  if  we  did  not  know  from  the  accounts  of  ancient  authors 
that  the  Indians  were  in  the  habit  of  assembling  every  eight  or  ten 
years  in  some  appointed  spot  to  inter  altogether  in  one  mass  the 
bones  of  their  dead  friends,  which  had  been  previously  exhumed. 
This  singular  ceremony  was  called  "  the  feast  of  the  dead." 

We  shall  not  say  much  here  as  to  the  sacrificial  mounds,  be- 
cause no  very  precise  agreement  has  yet  been  arrived  at  as  to  their 
exact  signification.  Their  chief  characteristics  are,  that,  in  the 
first  place,  they  are  nearly  always  found  within  certain  sacred  en- 
closures of  which  we  shall  have  more  to  say  further  on,  and  also 
that  they  cover  a  sort  of  altar  placed  on  the  surface  of  the  ground 
and  made  of  stone  or  baked  clay.  In  the  opinion  of  certain 
archaeologists,  this  supposed  altar  is  nothing  but  the  sight  of  a 
former  fire-hearth,  and  the  mound  itself  a  habitation  converted 
into  a  tomb  after  the  death  of  its  proprietor.  It  will  therefore  be 
best  to  reserve  our  judgment  as  to  the  existence  of  the  human 
sacrifices  of  which  these  places  might  have  been  the  scene,  until 
we  obtain  some  more  complete  knowledge  of  the  matter. 

The  Temple- Mounds  are  hillocks  in  the  shape  of  a  truncated 
pyramid,  with  paths  or  steps  leading  to  the  summit,  and  sometimes 
with  terraces  at  different  heights.  They  invariably  terminate  in  a 
platform  of  varying  extent,  but  sometimes  reaching  very  consider- 
able dimensions.  That  of  Cahokia,  in  Illinois,  is  about  100  feet  in 
height,  and  at  the  base  is  700  feet  long  and  500  feet  wide.  There  is 
no  doubt  that  these  mounds  were  not  exclusively  used  as  temples, 
and,  adopting  as  our  authority  several  instances  taken  from  Indian 
history,  we  may  be  permitted  to  think  that  on  this  upper  terrace 
they  were  in  the  habit  of  building  the  dwelling  of  their  chief. 

The  most  curious  of  these  earthworks  are,  beyond  question, 
those  which  the  American  archaeologists  have  designated  by  the 
name  of  animal-mounds.  They  consist  of  gigantic  bas-reliefs 
formed  on  the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  representing  men, 
mammals,  birds,  reptiles,  and  even  inanimate  objects,  such  as 
crosses,  pipes,  &c.  They  exist  in  thousands  in  Wisconsin,  being 
chiefly  found  between  the  Mississippi  and  Lake  Michigan,  and 


340  PRIMITIVE  MAN  IN  AMERICA. 

along  the  war-path  of  the  Indians.  Their  height  is  never  very 
considerable,  and  it  is  but  seldom  that  they  reach  so  much  as 
6  feet ;  but  their  length  and  breadth  is  sometimes  enormously 
developed.  Many  of  these  figures  are  copied  very  exactly  from 
Nature ;  but  there  are,  on  the  other  hand,  some  the  meaning  of 
which  it  is  very  difficult  to  discover,  because  they  have  been  in- 
jured by  the  influence  of  atmospheric  action  during  a  long  course 
of  ages. 

In  Dale  county  there  is  an  interesting  group  composed  of  a 
man  with  extended  arms,  six  quadrupeds,  a  simple  tumuhis, 
and  seven  mounds  without  any  artistic  pretensions.  The  man 
measured  125  feet  long,  and  nearly  140  feet  from  the  end  of  one 
arm  to  the  other.  The  quadrupeds  are  from  100  to  120  feet 
long. 

The  representations  of  lizards  and  tortoises  are  frequently  re- 
cognised in  these  monstrous  figures.  A  group  of  mounds,  situate 
near  the  village  of  Pewaukee,  included  when  it  was  discovered 
two  lizards  and  seven  tortoises.  One  of  these  tortoises  measured 
470  feet.  At  Waukesha  there  was  found  a  monstrous  "  turtle  " 
admirably  executed,  the  tail  of  which  stretched  over  an  extent  of 
250  feet. 

On  a  high  hill  near  Granville,  in  the  state  of  Ohio,  a  representa- 
tion is  sculptured  of  the  reptile  which  is  now  known  under  the 
name  of  alligator.  Its  paws  are  40  feet  long,  and  its  total  length 
exceeds  250  feet.  In  the  same  state  there  exists  the  figure  of  a 
vast  serpent,  the  most  remarkable  work  of  its  kind  ;  its  head 
occupies  the  summit  of  a  hill,  round  which  the  body  extends  for 
about  800  feet,  forming  graceful  coils  and  undulations;  the  mouth 
is  opened  wide,  as  if  the  monster  was  swallowing  its  prey.  The 
prey  is  represented  by  an  oval-shaped  mass  of  earth,  part  of  which 
lies  in  the  creature's  jaws.  This  mass  of  earth  is  about  160  feet 
long  and  80  feet  wide,  and  its  height  is  about  4  feet.  In  some 
localities  excavations  are  substituted  for  these  raised  figures ;  that 
is  to  say,  that  the  delineations  of  the  animals  are  sunk  instead  of 
being  in  relief — a  strange  variety  in  these  strange  works. 

The  mind  may  readily  be  perplexed  when  endeavouring  to  trace 
out  the  origin  and  purpose  of  works  of  this  kind.  They  do  not, 
in  a  general  way,  contain  any  human  remains,  and  consequently 


PRIMITIVE  MAN  IN  AMERICA.  341 

could  not  have  been  intended  to  be  used  as  sepulchres.  Up  to 
the  present  time,  therefore,  the  circumstances  which  have  accom- 
panied the  construction  of  these  eminently  remarkable  pre-his- 
toric  monuments  are  veiled  in  the  darkest  mystery. 

We  now  have  to  speak  of  those  enclosures  which  are  divided  by 
American  archaeologists  into  the  classes  of  defensive  and  sacred. 
This  distinction  is,  however,  based  on  very  uncertain  data,  and  it 
is  probable  that  a  large  portion  of  the  so-called  sacred  enclosures 
were  in  the  first  place  constructed  for  a  simply  defensive  purpose. 
They  were,  in  general,  composed  of  a  wall  made  of  stones,  and 
an  internal  or  external  ditch.  They  often  assumed  the  form  of 
a  parallelogram,  and  even  of  a  perfect  square  or  circle,  from  which 
it  has  been  inferred  that  the  ancient  Indians  must  have  possessed 
an  unit  of  measurement,  and  some  means  of  determining  angles. 
These  walls  sometimes  embraced  a  considerable  area,  and  not 
unfrequently  inside  the  principal  enclosure  there  were  other 
smaller  enclosures,  flanked  with  defensive  mounds  performing 
the  service  of  bastions.  In  some  cases  enclosures  of  different 
shapes  are  grouped  side  by  side,  either  joined  by  avenues  or 
entirely  independent  of  one  another. 

The  most  important  of  these  groups  is  that  at  Newark,  in  the 
Valley  of  Scioto ;  it  covers  an  area  of  4  square  miles,  and  is  com- 
posed of  an  octagon,  a  square,  and  two  large  circles.  The  external 
wall  of  one  of  these  circles  is  even  at  the  present  day  50  feet  in 
width  at  the  base  and  1 3  feet  high  ;  there  are  several  doorways 
in  it,  near  which  the  height  of  the  wall  is  increased  about  3  feet. 
Inside  there  is  a  ditch  6  feet  in  depth,  and  13  feet  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  doors,  its  width  being  about  40  feet.  The  whole  enclosure 
is  now  covered  by  gigantic  trees,  perhaps  500  or  600  years  old — 
a  fact  which  points  to  a  considerable  antiquity  for  the  date  of  its 
construction. 

When  we  reflect  on  the  almost  countless  multitude,  and  the  \ 
magnificent  proportions  of  the  monuments  we  have  just  described, 
we  are  compelled  to  recognise  the  fact  that  the  American  valleys 
must  at  some  early  date  have  been  much  more  densely  populated 
than  at  the  time  when  Europeans  first  made  their  way  thither. 
These  peoples  must  have  formed  considerable  communities,  and 
have  attained  to  a  somewhat  high  state  of  civilisation — at  all 


342  PRIMITIVE  MAN  IN  AMERICA. 

]  events  a  state  very  superior  to  that  which  is  at  present  the 
attribute  of  the  Indian  tribes. 

Tribes  which  were  compelled  to  seek  in  hunting  their  means 
of  everyday  existence,  could  never  have  succeeded  in  raising  con- 
structions of  this  kind.  They  must  therefore  necessarily  have 
found  other  resources  in  agricultural  pursuits. 

This  inference  is  moreover  confirmed  by  facts.  In  several 
localities  in  the  United  States  the  ground  is  covered  with  small 
elevations  known  under  the  name  of  Indian  corn-hills ;  they  take 
their  rise  from  the  fact  that  the  maize  having  been  planted  every 
year  in  the  same  spot,  has  ultimately,  after  a  long  course  of  time, 
formed  rising  grounds.  The  traces  of  ancient  corn-patches  have 
also  been  discovered  symmetrically  arranged  in  regular  beds  and 
parallel  rows. 

Can  any  date  be  assigned  to  this  period  of  semi-civilisation 
which,  instead  of  improving  more  and  more  like  civilisation  in 
Europe,  became  suddenly  eclipsed,  owing  to  causes  which  are 
unknown  to  us  ?  This  question  must  be  answered  in  the  nega- 
tive, if  we  are  called  upon  to  fix  any  settled  and  definite  date. 
Nevertheless,  the  conclusion  to  which  American  archaeologists 
have  arrived  is,  that  the  history  of  the  New  World  must  be  divided 
into  four  definite  periods. 

The  first  period  includes  the  rise  of  agriculture  and  industrial 
skill ;  the  second,  the  construction  of  mounds  and  enclosures ;  the 
third,  the  formation  of  the  "  garden  beds."  In  the  last  period,  the 
American  nation  again  relapsed  into  savage  life  and  to  the  free 
occupation  of  the  spots  which  had  been  devoted  to  agriculture. 

In  his  work  on  "  Pre-historic  Times,"  Sir  John  Lubbock,  who 
has  furnished  us  with  most  of  these  details,  estimates  that  this 
course  of  events  would  not  necessarily  have  required  a  duration 
of  time  of  more  than  3,000  years,  although  he  confesses  that  this 
figure  might  be  much  more  considerable.  But  Dr.  Douler,  another 
savant,  regards  this  subject  in  a  very  different  way.  Near  New 
Orleans  he  discovered  a  human  skeleton  and  the  remains  of  a 
fire,  to  which,  basing  his  calculations  on  more  or  less  admissible 
data,  he  attributes  an  antiquity  of  500  centuries !  Young  America 
would  thus  be  very  ancient  indeed  ! 

By  this  instance  we  may  see  how  much  uncertainty  surrounds 


PRIMITIVE  MAN  IN  AMERICA.  343 

the  history  of  primitive  man  in  America  ;  and  it  may  be  readily 
understood  why  we  have  thought  it  necessary  to  adhere  closely  to 
scientific  ideas  and  to  limit  ourselves  to  those  facts  which  are 
peculiar  to  Europe.  To  apply  to  the  whole  world  the  results 
which  have  been  verified  in  Europe  is  a  much  surer  course  of 
procedure  than  describing  local  and  imperfectly-studied  pheno- 
mena, which,  in  their  interpretation,  lead  to  differences  in  the/ 
estimate  of  time,  such  as  that  between  3,000  and  50,000  years. 


CONCLUSION. 

BEFORE  bringing  our  work  to  a  close  we  may  be  permitted  to 
retrace  the  path  we  have  trod,  and  to  embrace  in  one  rapid 
glance  the  immense  space  we  have  traversed. 

We  have  now  arrived  at  a  point  of  time  very  far  removed  from 
that  of  the  dweller  in  caves,  the  man  who  was  contemporary  with 
the  great  bear  and  the  mammoth  !  Scarcely,  perhaps,  have  we 
preserved  a  reminiscence  of  those  mighty  quadrupeds  whose  broad 
shadows  seem  to  flit  indistinctly  across  the  dim  light  of  the 
quaternary  epoch.  Face  to  face  with  these  gigantic  creatures, 
which  have  definitively  disappeared  from  the  surface  of  our  globe, 
there  were,  as  we  have  seen,  beings  of  a  human  aspect  who, 
dwelling  in  caves  and  hollows  of  the  earth,  clothed  themselves 
in  the  skins  of  beasts  and  cleft  flakes  of  stone  in  order  to  form 
their  weapons  and  implements.  We  can  hardly  have  failed  to 
feel  a  certain  interest  in  and  sympathy  with  them,  when  tracing 
out  the  dim  vestiges  of  their  progress ;  for,  in  spite  of  their  rude 
appearance,  in  spite  of  their  coarse  customs  and  their  rough  mode 
of  life,  they  were  our  brethren,  our  ancestors,  and  the  far- distant 
precursors  of  modern  civilisation. 

We  have  given  due  commendation  to  their  efforts  and  to  their 
progress.  After  a  protracted  use  of  weapons  and  implements 
simply  chipped  out  of  the  rough  flint,  we  have  seen  them  adopt 
weapons  and  instruments  of  polished  stone,  that  is,  objects  which 
had  undergone  that  material  preparation  which  is  the  germ  of 
the  industrial  skill  of  primitive  nations. 

Aided  by  these  polished-stone  instruments,  added  to  those  of 
bone  and  reindeer's  or  stag's  horn,  they  did  not  fear  to  enter  into 
a  conflict — which  every  day  became  more  and  more  successful — 
with  all  the  external  forces  which  menaced  them.  As  we  have 
seen,  they  brought  under  the  yoke  of  servitude  various  kinds  of 


CONCLUSION.  345 

animals  ;  they  made  the  dog  and  the  horse  the  companion 
and  the  auxiliary  of  their  labour.  The  sheep,  the  ox,  and  other 
ruminants  were  converted  into  domesticated  cattle,  capable  of 
ensuring  a  constant  supply  of  food. 

After  the  lapse  of  ages  metals  made  their  appearance ! — metals, 
the  most  precious  acquisition  of  all,  the  pledge  of  the  advent  of 
a  new  era,  replete  with  power  and  activity,  to  primitive  man. 
Instruments  made  of  stone,  bone,  reindeer  or  stag's  horn,  were 
replaced  by  those  composed  of  metal.  In  all  the  communities  of 
man  civilisation  and  metals  seem  to  be  constant  companions. 
Though  bronze  may  have  served  for  the  forging  of  swords  and 
spears,  it  also  provides  the  material  for  implements  of  peaceful 
labour.  Owing  to  the  efforts  of  continuous  toil,  owing  also  to  the 
development  of  intelligence  which  is  its  natural  consequence,  the 
empire  of  man  over  the  world  of  nature  is  still  increasing,  and 
man's  moral  improvement  follows  the  same  law  of  progression. 
But  who  shall  enumerate  the  ages  which  have  elapsed  whilst 
these  achievements  have  been  realised  ? 

But  thy  task  is  not  yet  terminated  !  Onward,  and  still  onward, 
brave  pioneer  of  progress  !  The  path  is  a  long  one  and  the  goal 
is  not  yet  attained  !  Once  thou  wert  contented  with  bronze,  now 
thou  hast  iron — iron,  that  terrible  power,  whose  function  is  to 
mangle  and  to  kill — the  cause  of  so  much  blood  and  so  many 
bitter  tears  !  but  also  the  beneficent  metal  which  fertilises  and 
gives  life,  affording  nutriment  to  the  body  as  well  as  to  the  mind. 
The  Romans  applied  the  name  of  ferrum  to  the  blade  of  their 
swords  ;  but  in  after  times  ferrum  was  also  the  term  for  the 
peaceful  ploughshare.  The  metal  which  had  brought  with  it 
terror,  devastation,  and  death,  ere  long  introduced  among  nations 
peace,  wealth,  and  happiness. 

And  now,  O  man,  thy  work  is  nearly  done  !  The  mighty 
conflicts  against  nature  are  consummated,  and  thy  universal 
empire  is  for  ever  sure !  Animals  are  subject  to  thy  will  and 
even  to  thy  fancies.  At  thy  command  the  obedient  earth  opens 
its  bosom  and  unfolds  the  riches  it  contains.  Thou  hast  turned 
the  course  of  rivers,  cleared  the  mountain-sides  of  the  forests 
which  covered  them,  and  cultivated  the  plains  and  valleys ;  by 
thy  culture  the  earth  has  become  a  verdant  and  fruitful  garden. 

2  A 


346  CONCLUSION. 

Thou  hast  changed  the  whole  aspect  of  the  globe,  and  mayest 
well  call  thyself  the  lord  of  creation  ! 

Doubtless  the  expanding  circle  of  thy  peaceful  conquests  will 
not  stop  here,  and  who  can  tell  how  far  thy  sway  may  extend  ? 
Onward  then  !  still  onward  !  proud  and  unfettered  in  thy  vigilant 
and  active  course  towards  new  and  unknown  destinies ! 

But  look  to  it,  lest  thy  pride  lead  thee  to  forget  thy  origin. 
However  great  may  be  thy  moral  grandeur,  and  however  complete 
thy  empire  over  a  docile  nature,  confess  and  acknowledge  every 
hour  the  Almighty  Power  of  the  great  Creator.  Submit  thyself 
before  thy  Lord  and  Master,  the  God  of  goodness  and  of  love,  the 
Author  of  thy  existence,  who  has  reserved  for  thee  still  higher 
destinies  in  another  life.  Learn  to  show  thyself  worthy  of  the 
supreme  blessing — the  happy  immortality  which  awaits  thee  in 
a  world  above,  if  thou  hast  merited  it  by  a  worship  conceived  in 
spirit  and  in  truth,  and  by  the  fulfilment  of  thy  duty  both  towards 
God  and  towards  thy  neighbour ! 


347 


ALPHABETICAL  INDEX 


AUTHORS'  NAMES  CITED  IN  THIS  VOLUME. 


Albert!,  228 
Arcelin,  120 
Austen  (Godwin),  9 

Baudot,  178 

Bertrand,  187,  197 

Bocchi,  82 

Bonstetten,  187 

Borel,  319 

Boucher  de  Perthes,  8,  9,  16,  17,  18,  45, 

82,  161,  162,  163,  164,  165,  166 
Boue  (Aime),  6 

Bourgeois  (Abbe),  3,  16,  17,  73,  149 
Boutin,  74 
Broca,  114,  181 

Brun(V.),  88,  98,  106,  115,  119 
Buckland,  6 
Busk,  36,  81,  182 

Camper,  5 

Cazalis  de  Fondouce,  128 

Chantre,  120 

Chevalier  (Abbe),  147 

Christol  (de),  7,  74 

Christy,  73,  86,  90,  95,  106,   108,   109, 

no,  in,  118 
Clement,  225 
Cochet  (Abbe),  177 
Costa  de  Beauregard,  91,  319 
Cuvier,  6,  7 

Dampier,  132,  219 

Darwin,  132 

Davis  (Dr.  Barnard),  36,  8l,  337 

Delaunay,  73 

Desnoyers,  9,  20,  57 

Desor,  175,  217  note,  220,  221,  227,  242, 

244,  251,  252,  257,  260,  271,  289,  310, 

321,  324,  329 
Dolomieu,  156,  157 
Dumont  d'Urville,  219,  225 
Dupont  (Edouard),  82,  94,  95,  104,  112, 

113,  114,  116,  120 


Edwards  (Milne),  12,  120,  127 

Esper,  6 

Evans,  II,  12,  51,  131,  149 

Falconer,  10,  n,  76 
Faudel,  82 

Ferry  (de),  73,  91,  120 
Filhol,  15,  75,  127,  169,  181 
Flower,  n 
Fontan,  n,  74,  119 
Forchhammer,  131 
Forel,  176 

Foresi  (Raffaello),  181 
,  Forgeais,  178,  202 
Foulon-Menard,  169 
Fournet,  158 
Fraas,  104 
Franchet,  73 
Frere,  6,  12 
Fuhlrott,  80 

Garrigou,  15,  16,  75,  no,  119,  127,  169, 

181 

Gastaldi  and  Moro,  227 
Gaudry  (Albert),  1 1 
Gervais  (Paul),  74,  128 
Gillieron,  267,  292,  293 
Gmelin,  299 
Gosse,  n,  12 

Gratiolet  and  Alix,  31,  33,  34 
Guerin,  72 

Hannour  and  Himelette,  179 

Hauzeur,  104 

Hebert,  II 

Heer,  265 

Hernandez,  160 

His,  290 

Hochstetter,  229 

Hussan,  72 

Huxley,  26,  80 

Issel,  91 


348 


Jeitteler,  239 
Joly,  8 
Joly-Leterme,  120 

Keller,  135,  175,  216,  220,  225,  227,  280, 

282 

Kemp,  6 
Knapp,  336 
Kosterlitz,  228 

Lambert  (1'Abbe),  3 

Lartet,  I,  2,  13,  14,  15,  18,  20,  6l,  62, 
63,  64,  66,  67,  71,  101,  102,  106,  108, 
109,  no,  in,  118,  120,  180 

Lawrence,  31 

Leguay,  150,  153,  195,  200 

Leveille  (Cornewall),  208 

Lioy  (Paolo),  228 

Lohle,  223 

Lubbock  (Sir  John),  97,  131,  189,  190, 
195,  200,  219,  230,  275,  342 

Lund,  9,  77 

Lyell  (Sir  Charles),  n,  20,  36,  132,  224 

Marcel  de  Serres,  3,  7 

Martin,  12 

Morlot,  94,  217  note,  249,  291,  300,  301 

Mortillet   (de),   89,    131   note,   172,    227, 

245,  283,  308  note 
Mudge,  231 
Mylne,  n 

Naegeli,  239 

Nilsson,  1 1 6,  189,  195,  208,  209 

Noulet,  10 

Osculati,  239 
Otz,  226 
Owen,  91,  119 

Peccadeau  de  1'Isle,  90,  106,  107,  119 
Peigne  Delacour,  12 
Penguelly,  10 
Penguilly,  1'Haridon,  149 
Pereira  de  Costa,  132 
Pigorini,  232,  235,  236,  238 
Place,  1 60 
Pommerol,  171 
Prestwich,  n,  46,  131 
Pruner-Bey,  18,  32,  33,  35,  37,  81,  113, 
114,  181 


Quatrefages  (de),  1 8,  30,  31,  38 
Quiquerez,  301,  302,  303,  308 

Rabut,  229 

Rames,  15 

Ramsauer,  312,  314 

Ranchet,  227 

Reboux,  12 

Reffye,  321 

Rigollot,  10,  54 

Robert  (Eugene),  12,  149 

Rochebrune,  157 

Rougemont  (de),  320 

Riitimeyer,  265,  268 

Saussure  (de),  160  . 

Sauvage  and  Hamy,  131 

Schaaffhausen,  37,  8 1 

Scheuchzer,  5 

Schild,  226 

Schmerling,  7,  77 

Schmidt,  284,  287  note 

Schwab,  248,  250 

Silber,  228 

Squier,  337 

Steenstrup,  130,  131    133 

Steinhauer,  66 

Stopani  (1'Abbe),  227 

Strobel,  132,  232,  -.35,  236,  238,  239 

Thioly,  226 

Tournal,  7 

Troyon,  175,  217  note,  225,  253 


Uhlmann,  134 

Vallier,  229 

Van  Beneden,  112,  113 

Vibraye  (Marquis  de),  II,  73,  94,  98 

Vicq-d'Azyr,  31 

Vogt,  26,  80,  181,  280,  281,  282 

Welker,  32 

Wilde  ( Sir  W.  R.),  230 

Wood,  76 

Worsaae,  131,  175,  276 

Wyatt,  12 


CHARLES   DICKENS   AND   EVANS,   CRYSTAL   PALACE   PRESS. 


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